NOTICES

ON

CHINESE GRAMMAR

PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY.

BY

PHILO-SINENSIS.

BAT A VI A:

PRINTED AT THE MISSION PRESS.

MDCCCXL1I.

NOTICES 7/2-

CHINESE GRAMMAR.

BOOK I. CHAPTER I.

ON SOUNDS.

WITH regard to the sounds of the Chinese language She student would da well to consult Morrison's Gram- mar, which contains a short treatise on4he subject, la MarshmanVClayis Siuica,' there is a long and too theo* reticai essay. An able paper on this topic appears it* the Illrd Vol. of the Chinese repository, Na 1. Abel Roi/iusat's Gramtrmire Chinoise, contains a lucid expo « oition of the system. Premare, in his Notitue, is v^ry short The introiuction to Kanghe's Dictionary, ftom whence most of the remarks of the above writers have been taken, is very full on the subject. For the FokeeB, in particular, gee Medhurst's introductory remarks to his Dictionary of that dialect, -and Dyer's -system of intonation; while for the Canton dialect, the Chinese Chrestomathy may be consulted, which adds Httle to the ^3-neral notices contained in the above wofks.

i. On examining the. great mass of tte sounds of

language, they appear as if they were the

•^ dilation made by a child, «Ajch just

^ m&» la, he5 foo; Sfor of

SOUNDS. CHAP. !,

simple.monoe-\ilables do the greater part of the words • itesisl;; : ..TBey^te thus the bare pronunciation of the elements of which every other language consists, with- out their multifarious combinations.

2. The Chinese is the most monosyllabic tongue on. -earth, though not entirely so. The Annjtmese is fuller, and admits of more combinations; the Siamese resem* bles the Chinese in many respects, so also the Laps, but both have a greater number of polysyllables; the Birmah and Pegu, two cognate dialects, have increased their compounds, and the Cambodian still more so; the Ko- rean and Japanese are decidedly polysyllabic, though admitting of Chinese sounds to a great extent. It may also be remarked, that the Chinese oral medium has more combined words than the written one.

3. The student must therefore be prepared to deal with monosyllables in all their imperfections. If he

4 merely wishes to study Chinese literature, this subject need not engage much of his attention; but if, on the

« contrary, he intends to speak the language, he must from the very first, bestow much care upon repeating, after the teacher, with a shrill voice, every sound, endeavour- ing to assimilate his enunciation, as much as possible, to the Chinese drawl. Missionaries, above all, must acquire the proper pronunciation, from frequent oral communications with the natives, and they cannot do better than live amongst the people, in order to ensui < the acquisition of their dialects. Difficult as is the task, still many stupid Malays and Negros have learnt to pronounce the tones of the Chinese language bv this means; whilst well-educated men, who have confin- ed themselves to their teachers, have found great dif- ficulty of utterance, whenever they come in contact TOth the common people. The table of syllables, in

v Morrison's alphabetic Dictionary, or that contained in Prsmare's Notitiee, if repeatedly read with a native, will pcrbapb assist the student in acquiring the various souses contained in the Chinese language. We have, for the most part, retained Morrison's orthography. which though<K-fective, is still the best invented*

CHAP. i. s4toros. 3

4, In characterizing the language as monosyllabic, \ve do not mean to say, that it is entirely so; for it eon- tains compounds of two, three, four, five, and even six syllables, e. g. ^t *t seen s&ng, a teacher, }fe p hae kow, a harbour. lljk ^ TJJ? tsung ping kwan* a Lieut.-General. ^ !±~ ^ tseen le king, a spy glass. ?K B^ ^ ^ shuysze te tub, an admiral. fp ^ 1£ ^v ^ me t'heen che ta kwo, an abomin* ation. 1$ M A •£ -^ nuy kb ta heo sze, a minister of state. ^ ^ ^ ^. ^ pth te'£ cfce hae tang hwa, Pyrus Japonica: while those of two are of very frequent occurrence, (see the chapter on words.)

5, The sounds of the Mandarin dialect have ch, e, f, g, gn, h, (aspirated) j, k, 1, in, n, c, r*g, p, s, sb, 68, t» ts, u^ w, and y, for initials, when expressed by our letters: the finals are our vowels, with the German or Italian pronunciation, besides *n and ng; in this we do not in- clude the syllable urh, which is unique in its kind* The initials k, p, and t are sometimes aspirated, as J^ be, a foundation. $$ and k'he, a period, g, pa, crust* and ^ p'ha, a curtain. $t teih, to guide, $§r andt'heih3 to fear; these aspirates ought to be carefully marked from the very commencement. The final vowels form a number of dipthongs, such as ae? aou, ay, ei, eaou, and ow. This is perhaps the most simjple system of sounds fc existence,

6, The numerous dialects spoken throughout the empire Jifikr considerably from the Mandarin, both in the imi iak as well as in the finals, and it is next to impossible to give an outline of these variations. Even the Mandarin dialect is spoken in various ways; the northern people aspirate the words very strongly, and pronounce the short words, such a$ %. tth, virtue; and

))£» peih, must, as softly as if they ended in a short yowel; whilst more to the south, and in most of the pro- vincial dialects, they are uttered abruptly as if they ter- minated in d, k, p, or t; thus £& tseu&, to cut off, sounds like tsoat ^ ke&, a bud, as kap. % keo, a horn, as ke'ok. Ts is oft^n interchanged with ch, and sh; and vice versa, A diphthong and vowel are not pro-

sossros;

& if they formed separate syllables; but the is always uttered short, so as almost to coalesce with- the former:- thus 3 leaou, finished, does not sound like Ikaou. but leaou. ^ tew, not te-u,but tlu.

7. The great bulk of the nation has no idea of spell- ing, but in several native dictionaries, a system of di- viding words into initials and finals is introduced, adopted perhaps in imitation of the Sanscrit, and by Kang-he cm-tied to a great extent. In the national dictionary there are nine series of initials, called ^ -$- tsse * f VOQ, 36ih number, llie first five have four, the sixth a?nd seventh series have five, the eighth has four, and the tdnth has only two sounds. The finals called flfc ^ neS jfcjn; aie-twelve in number, eight of which are vowels or diphthongs; and four nasals. By means of these two classes the spelling of every word is effected. Thug Suppose you wish to intimate how the character JiL l&o, little, sounds; you would write jfc, lae, come, 8>r the initial, j^j led, to steal, as the final; thus 1 (ae and 1) e6 becomes Ie5. This is a very tedious process, and aot'eVfeH understood by the natives. The curious reader will find' enough upon this subject, in Kanghe's dictiouary, and Marshman's grammar^

8^ The whole number of distinct sounds formed in Hie above manner is 629, including 195 aspirated ones, It WdUtS haxxe-been quite impossible to have expressed ^riB6ffs with so very few articulations of the voice, and AeTefdrethe* Chinese intonated them to increase their variety and distinctness. There are altogether font tones,, called^" shing, as ^ ping, the eveD,J; shangf. the high on0,0furac ate, ^ kheu, the low or falling soundy our grave;, and the J?v juh, or abrupt sound. The Chinese, mark them thus, ± i ^ ^ this, however* is not done, unless the word receive a dif- ferent signification from wha" it has generally, and only very exact writers, in few cases, make use of this diacritical mark. The reason is, that every native when hearing for the first time a word pronounced, though, otherwise entirely ignorant of the system,, knows imme* diately ta what sound* i* bdougs, Wsstew

CHAP. S. SOUNDS. 5

lars mark thera^ when expressing Chinese in Roman letters, the ping, by a, the shang, by a, the k'beu, by a. the jfchf by &. This intonation is a very essential part of the language, to which a student from the. very first must accustom his ear. It would be in vain to attempt to convey an idea of the proper pronun- ciation cf these tones by rules; the auditory organs alone must be consulted; and when the distinction between them is ascertained, «t ought to be carefully marked, what tone each character bears, for otherwise none will learn to talk intelligibly. Premare^ Morrison, and others have given lists of the tones, which if attentively perused with a teacher, will best initiate the student in this mystery.

9. The meaning of words, though to a foreign ear sounding in the same manner, is materially altered by intonation; thus ^g eh6o,ahinge; JjJ choo, a kitchen;

J| choo, a place; jfe chuh,to go out. JJ. ma, hemp;

3| ma, ahorse; J| ma, to scold; ^ m£, or ino, to

wipe. Only those words which end in a simple vowel can have the short sound. Hherearenot many sounds that have tttis regular number of intonations ; 533 have the ping, 501 the shang, 519 the k'heu, and 221 the jiih, which gives the whole number of different sounds, varied by tones, to be found in the Chinese language, as 178L

10. It is remarkable that the same system of intona- tion is found throughout all the dialects, and it may therefore be considered as an essential part of the lan- guage. Some dialects subdivide the tones into two classes, higher and lower ping, shang, &c, whilst poets merely divide them into ^ ping, even; and JL tsih, deflected; subdividing them again into v^ tsing, clear, and >U chub, impure tones.

11. Notwithstanding this intonation, there are still, an immense number of words, which, though conveying different ideas, are to a European ear pronounced exact- ly alike; no les& than 1165 characters heave the sound rfe, and of the other sounds, tbare are often from 50 to ISO dbaiacte to each* aod ou average 16 characters to

fj SOUKftS. CHAP. L

each intonation, so that notwithstanding this refine- ment of tones there exists stii! very great confusion in the enunciation of this extraordinary language.

12. We have already remarked, that several cha- racters change their signification with the variation of the tone, as for instance g| yu, rain, becomes jj§? yu, it rains; f|J woo, to hate, becomes H woo, or hoo, how ?

H 6. or go, bad. Thus many substantives and adjec- tives are turned into verbs by giving to them the k'heu tone, as jt choo, aJord; £ choo,to rule; 1 shang, above; Jg shang, to ascend. Poets assume great liber- ty in changing the intonation, for the sake of cadence and rhyme. We would urge the reader most particular- ly to give his attention to this subject, as this peculi- arity is so very frequently overlooked.

13. Many characters change their signification, by adopting different sounds, or in other words, certain cha- racters have a variety of sounds and meanings. For instence, the character )rg read khe, means elegant, tall ; readkan, it signifies sincerity ;&] ke, to cut; read kwae. means to sharpen. This will appear still more clear, on examination of the dictionary: we merely subjoin the remark, that there are several characters, which may he read with two different accents, or even sounds, without changing the meaning.

14. It frequently happens that a similarity of sound conveys a similarity of meaning, thus "tt, king, $2. lung,§^ king, and *g king, mean all violent; so also

ii Ifj JR. 4R. 3R an<i ^ a^ pronounced juen, or nwan, mean equally soft. This is not merely the case, where there is an apparent similarity of character, but also where these have not the slightest resemblance, i-i& HI heae, CJK! fit heae, bold: ^ and Tg heaou, to call out. It is worthy of observation, that to a certain class of sounds, a certain series of ideas is attached, which remark would be confirmed by a reference to the dictionary: we shall quote here some examples : ^ shih, %g che,^j? seih, and H seth, all signify to know> to be acquainted wiih, yjij tung, ^ tung, |g. and tsung, '

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS.

fmmg, mean obscure, dull, A slight attention to thte subject, w/mld greatly facilitate the acquisition of the meaning of characters.

15. Many passages in Chinese boolcs are obscure, be* cause the writers, not consulting the meaning of the characters, and merely expressing the sound, without reference to the Dictionary, havegreatly embarrassed the sense. This, is principally the case where persons have only a partial acquaintance with the written language.

16. Without proper attention to the intonation the spoken Chinese language is a mere unintelligible jargon; great stress therefore should be laid upon the intonation, as a wrong tone is not only grating to the ear of the scholar, but perceptible by the most vulgar. In com- position, the Chinese carefully put together their words, so as to produce a rythmus. and when the regular cha- racters.do not suffice, they use expletives to render the cadence complete. It would be well for the foreign student, when -beginning to read Chinese, to do it just in the same singing manner as the natives employ, for by this means he will learn to proaounce correctly, and avoid confounding congenial sounds.

CHAPTER II.

CN THE CHARACTERS.

FOR a general system of the Chinese character, see Abel Remusat's Grammar. Marshcnan's Grammar contains a variety of good ideas, mingled with some un- founded theories.

1. To convey ideas of objects, by tracing an outline of them, is the first and most natural way of writing The Chinese being throughout an original people, a- dopted this mode in high antiquity, and the inventive. of writing is ascribed to tuh-he and TsangheS. Tbese tvorthiessresaidto haw fifet discovered this important

8 CHARACTERS. CHAP. II,

art, on beholding the lines on the back of a tortoise, and the streaks with which beautiful insects are adorned. But as every body cannot paint, and the process in itself is a very tedious one, some more easy representation of ideas became necessary; the forms were contracted and remodelled, so as to suit the convenience of the writer. Tt is also very obvious, that for the greater part of ideas no imitative representations could be made,, and there- fore new and arbitrary signs had to be invented. Thus did the present system of the Chinese characters come into being, and attain completion after many changes and improvements. They constitute without exception the most stupendous work of human genius, of which xhe literary world can boast, and were brought to per- fection by the incessant exertion and ingenuity of thou- sands of the most intelligent persons, chosen from a nation counting millions, apd this after the labour of many centuries. Their acquisition is, therefore, very difficult,, but their construction is worthy of our ad- miration.

2, They have been aptly compared to our numerals, each possessing an intrinsic meaning, with this differ- ence, however, that from the component parts of some of the Chinese characters the sound can be partially ascer- tained. As a graphic system they have beauty and expressiveness in their favour, but their being so nume- rous and difficult of acquisition are very, great defects. The paucity of sounds in this language renders all syl- labic, or alphabetic representation of the same nugatoiy, and the manifold dialects make their adoption a matter of impossibility. The characters, therefore, are best adopted to form the written medium of the Chinese language. ; but some of the cognates, as the K o/eaa and Japanese, possess a syllabic system, by which the sounds of the characters are indistinctly conveyed; and e?en the Cochin €fones«vadmits of the use of certains $mbols, which serves for conveying the sounds, nearly in the same manner as the above-named system. It as by the use of tfc -victors that this great nafcu has remain*

ed one. whole* and btf^ gn&i soever tha uiaiactisai atf-

tiHAP. II. CHARACTERS. 9

fere ; vices, the literature has * d the same, intelli-

gible to the inhabitants of the most distant provinces, throughout all ages.

3. The modes of writing the characters are various. Those in present use are, 1st, the & *$| sung te, in •which character most of the books are (>rinfcu. It is firm and slid*, plain and perspicuous; but it is little used ip writing: 2nd, the ^ ^f ktae shoo, pattern style, an elegant and free hand, differing from the other by the to tai absence of all stiffness : 3rd; the -fj- H" hing shoo or running hand, which is the quick mode of writing used in the business of common life: 4th, the J£ ^ tsaoutsze, is the extreme of the above, full of abbrevia- tions and contractions, betokening the hurry, mth whirl the characters are written, and almost unintelligible, except to the initiated. With the firs* three, even one who makes any pretensions to Chinese scholarship should make himself acquainted, while he should ajs*- endeavour to read the latter. There are besides these three ancient forms, little used, except by pedants, anc* in prefaces. They are 1st, the jji % le shoo, officu* style. introduced about the commencement of our ere thus called on account of its being used in the publi offices; it is more coarse and clumsy than any of th above, but has furnished the elements from whence th present mode of writing was drawn: 2nd, the ^ ^1 chuenshoo, a square character totally different from a others, almost exclusively used for seals : 3rd, the $$ $£- k'ho tow, tadpole style; this is the primary hieroglyphic first used at the invention of writing, and now entirely / obsolete. The Chinese characters ere written from top f to bottom, and from the right to the left of the page,

4. A good classification of the characters i> still a d- sic! era turn; the Chinese have very little method in siu- matters, and exhibit therein the total absence of a phil sophi-cal spirit. The original and most nutural division which is still retailed i.n some Japanese dictionaries is to place their* according to their signification. Thu all characters that denote celestial objects are place uuder one head, those which signify berreetiol ones mi-

10 CHARACTERS. CHAP. II.

der another, &e. This arrangement, however, has ma- By great defects, and renders it often very difficult to fed a character. Ihe mode adopted. by Kanghe and others, is to place the characters tender keys or ra* dica3$, called %5 poo; and another plan is to divide the ivhole mass of sy mi- ols according to the principles on which they were originally constructed.

5. In detailing the latter classification we follow native authors: 1st, there are characters refering to na- tural objects, to which they bear some resemblance; these are called ^ $1 hing seang, or hieroglyphics. Such are $ muh, derived from ts? the eye, &c. •$- tsze, from ^ a child, &c. in all 608 in number. 2nd, there are characters that combine two or three ideas, in order to form a whole, as 3| seang, from wood. eye, and bamboo, which joined together signify a box. (the ( hinese have them elegantly made of bamboo.) l/D n»ing, composed of sun and moon; signifying toge- ther bright, clear: these are called ^ ^ hwuy e, combination of ideas, amounting to 740 in number: 3rd, those which convey by their formation some idea of situ- ation or form; as j=L san, three, formed of three strokes put together; 7\ hea, for ^ below, i and shang, for -i- above; these are called^S^che sze> indications of things, and are together 107. They might however, very pro- perly be'placed in the first class, 4th, there is # class, Called inverted symbols^ which have lost their originaf form; thus^ yew, right, for *)* ;andjfe tso, left, for ^ : these are called ^ ^L chuea choo, inverted significa- tions, and are 372 in number. This class seems to be Entirely fanciful. 5th, there are characters that have lost their direct meaning, and have retained the metaphorical one. Such are § t'heih, a concealed heart, now used for vice. J# chub, grass springing forth, used fcr to go out. These are called j§L f*| kea tseay, metaphorical, aflic? are 598 m Dumber. 6th, characters conveying some idea of sound are called ^ %£ shing hing, phonetic characters; they consist of compounds, of wjiich one con- veys the idea, and the other the sound: thut> 4fe pih, a cypress , composed of ^ muh, a tree, and & pih,

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS, 11

white. The former indicates the idea, the latter the sound. 3^ gno, a goose, coro posed of ^ guo, the sound, and ^ neaou, the bird. This latter class is the most numerous, and contains no less thaia 21,810; making with the above 24,235 characters.

6. The elements of the characters are very sample; a horizontal and a perpendicular line, two obKque ones drawn in different directions, one with a hook at the end, and a point or dot; from these few strokes the vast variety of Chinese symbols has been framed, and they are all found in the character jjc yung, eternal. It is remarkable, that neither the circle nor the triangle has been used, whilst the square appears in the most varied forms. Calvgraphy is a science amongst the Chinese, and nobody can lay claim to scholarship without being able to write a fair hand. Much attention, therefore, is bestowed on the art of drawing the characters, and tnaay of the Chinese write very beautifully. The student ought to learn from a native teacher how best to sketch the symbol, and carefully imitate his manner.

7. The radicals under which the Chinese characters are classified, are 21 4. It is by no means necessary that there should be so many, for the forms of some are contained in others, and about one third have only a dozen characters under each, so that many of them are quite superfluous. In Gonsalves' Dictionary the num- ber has been considerably reduced. We may remark with regard to these radicals that most of them are ge- neric terms, under which a whole host of words is torn- prised ; such as ^ neaou, bird; $t yu, fish; ^ tsaou, gTass, &c. Though in many instances the radical in- fiuences the iiicaning, it must not always be interred, that this is the case; thus J|f tseay, to pretend, is found under the radical grass ; f|| kea, a price, is classed un» der the .radical man, and so with a great many others. The number of characters arranged under each radical differs also very considerably ; thus *$ tsaou, grass, has 1423; j£- shwuy. water, has 1333; J show, the hand, has 1012; Q k'hi.w. the mouth, has S83, It appears that the inventors of this system Uave embodied in their

J2 CHARACTERS. CHAt». 11.

list many original ideas, -whilst they have introduced 150 various, sounds. Ibis shows that the classification now treated of, was the result of deep research and much labour.

8. The principal use of these radicals, or keys, is to enable the student to find out the words in 'the Imperial Dictionary. As soon as be has discovered the radical, which occupies generally the most conspicuous part of the character, whether to the left or right, above or be- low, (the left being, however, the place of most of them,) he must oount the strokes of whieh the other part of the character is composed, and then look into the Dictionary, where he will find the word- arranged under its appro- priate radical, according to the number of the strobes: thus ^ tseay, tc borrow, is under the radical A, jin? a raaiij with 8 strokes; $& j£, will be found under the key £i ho, fire, with 1 2 strokes, &c. The method of counting the number of strokes can only be acquired by use; thus £* yih. is only considered as or- tri

JC yew, and A mow, as two; and 12 k'how cbhb - ii>g three strokes.

9, Many characters are writ ten in different ways; equally correct; thus ^ che, to rehab, may be written

'%•• % and $| So jS.aaon, torains/is also writ* ten jgg J|g. and thus with many •• characters that are much in use, some of wbteh hs*T six 'diffetcnt forms; one, however, is always thepredojaiivvte.

10. T Chinese lexicographers b»ve drawn a line of deraarkation between these --variations. 1. There are j£ ^1 ching tsze, characters which are correctly written, and have no variations. 2. (^ ^ tuivg tsze, identical characters, different forms having the same meaning, as j$| and -ff| shen, food, a mess; ^ ^ * ^S* il, and ^ all pronounced kwei, tlr^' ebeek bones, a diverging road, ; 3. >f(t '^-t'himg sze, ckaracters that have some rolation to each other, and may be used promiscuously, such as £$* tsan, to rcangle, ab? viced fbr H. three: Jg moln. hnn^y. used forjjlf mefcvS8cret. 4. ^ f piin ts^r-r and ' £ ^ kc»o • tsze,' origiBiai and ancient forms of the character ; of

CHAP. II. CHARACTERS.- IS

these there are a good many, as js for k'heu to •walk; A for £& •• kwae, a clod. 5. <& ^ ^hiVi, or vulgar forms; this class is the most ous.

as jti for jflL k-wei, a denum ; ^ for J| . c&o>*. <i place. In short every provincial dialer t has a numbe - of Cha- racters, that are not to be found m the IK;;.; ;<- W& tionory, and arc peculiar to the place itself, • • • -•. printed books (and especially in those written in colloquial style.) a great many abbreviations and con- tractions <*ve vnet-: wU.lron every page, wMch the reader v } >e rif-FiCE -will be < lerstand ; such

nre^. far ^ ye:o severe; ^ lor ^ pan. to manage; HP A a lh«>visand otljv-

1L Characters gnghily Riodified,' ought not to be considered as syn0ftiifloti$j unless the respective charac- teristic parts have a similar meaning, and the charac- ters differ in xio oilier res j)ecl Thus nany charac have promiscuoi&ly -;^'-' Hifih, wood, M- chuh. bnnv and -^ 'tsacuf, grass, 'for radicals^ and if the .voairdnder of the form reserableb one the other, they may almost lie looked upon as synonimes. Should, however, prevailing figure be ^5 nhjb. a stone, /^ jiiL, a man, or jfo Mth, Ktrengtli, then how similar soever in form, they gewerally differ as widely in meaning. Many Eynibols are to an unaccustomed eye nearly alike, though the meaning is materially different; thus .^t ping, peace,, aM ^ hoo, a note of admiration in. or at. ^ keen, to see, and Jl pei, a pearl, or precious substance. in distinguishing these, the attention should be directed to see, whether a perpendicular stroke be used, or one with a hook nt the bottom, and whether the slanting Strokes be straight- or bent Kanghe has given, in the introduction of tl».e Ihiperial Dictionary a list of cha- racters, which resemble each other; and Dav>* has writ- ten a very useful treatise upon Chinese Culigraphy, in fl-'- !rai38a<?iions .^'the Royal . Asiatic Society.

/The number of Chinese • characters has been

±'.'<L The following estimate is perhaps

nearest the truth. The characters in Kanghe's Diction-

ary, are 31, 214; obsolete forms, 6.423; characters for

14 CHARACTERS* CHAP. II.

the first time collected m that work 1,659; and cha- racters without name or meaning, 4 200; total 43,496. It is natural to suppose that these are not all in common use, and the question has again and again been asked, how many are wanted to enable a person to write upon any given subject. Some have said, that 2,000 were enough, not considering the increased number of ideas. which will need to be conveyed by persons writing on literary and religious topics. The result to which we have come is, that for the common purposes of life the above number would be nearly sufficient, but feat a professional writer* and a student of general literature, must have from 8 to 9,000 at his command. (See Dyer's very useful table of the most common characters.)

13. We have already alluded to mere local charac- ters; of this description there are in tbe Canton dialect

fl|5 chuk, to move, and Pfr iui, not: in the Fokeen.

51 kea, a child, and $ lang, man, with many hun- dreds more. In books these vulgarisms are rarely found; but whosoever wishes to be thoroughly conver- sant with a dialect^ ought to make himself acquainted with these provincialisms.

14. The characters used by the Chinese are ideo- graphic symbols, as rich in variety as the compounds of the Greek language. The Chinese, who are actuated in every thing by the rule of contrariety, instead of combining sounds, have multiplied by juxta-positiou the number of ideographic symbols. Other languages speak to the ear. the Chinese to the eye; in the first therefore it is extremely defective, in the second abun- dantly rich, without parallel in other literature.

The most superficial observer will have remarked, that besides tbe keys, there are a great number of signs, which serve to compose characters. We shall here merely quote a few, the others must be collected from the Dictionary; the character ijjjj gno, I, forms a com- ponent part of DO less than 25 characters, to most of which it givr* soi'TJu; ^ chung, middle, of 19; £fcr che, to kaenT, of 16, &e.

1-5, It eanrot bo. deuiea. that these compounding

CHAP. U. CHARACTERS, 15

symbols, in many instances, give not only sound, but al- so a generic meaning to the newly formed character; as is frequently the case with the radicals ; still there are no certain rules for these derivations, and though some may occasionally be traced, it is very difficult, to fix with certainty upon the signification. (See the Dic- tionary, where this subject is amply discussed.) A num- ber of characters contain the meaning of both the com- ponent parts; for instance -^ t£ng, from & kin, me- tal, and ^ tang, to ascend, means a stirrup; ^- tseu, from 3pt tseu, to take, and $£ neu, a woman, imports to take a wife, to marry; Jl she, from Jf she, dead, and

^ me, rice, produces ordure, excrements. |i§ niing, from ^ kin, metal, and J& ming, a name, to engrave. The student ought to accustom himself thus to trace the origin of the characters, and in so doing he will never cease to admire the great ingenuity of the Chi- nese in forming their language.

16. If each Chinese character had but a single meaning, it would be tolerably easy to acquire a suffi- cient number of them; but besides the reasons that multiply in other languages the signification of words, there is in Chinese the similarity of sound with other characters, that leads to the confounding of significations; and moreover, a system of compounding two or more symbols, to convey a single idea, which renders the ac- quisition still more difficult Thus £fc keu, for instance, means to raise, lift, move, elevate, introduce, recom- mend, to bring forward a subject, to praise, (used for

jf^ yu, to praise,) to promote, all (used for fft keu, all,) to walk, (used for $j~ k'heu, to go.) to venerate (used for $f ke, to pray to,) to kill viciiros for sacrifice, (used for Hjj keih, to kill,) to confiscate smuggled goods, (used for ^ keu, to lay hold of,) besides three taels weight, other and a variety of other significations. Combined with wor«3s to f >rm phrases it reads thus, j^ A keu jin, £ ',:rnuuate of the second degree; ^ Up? keu tung, behaviour; ^ ^j keuhing, to put in practice , c keu, a nobleact; — - j^l yih keu, with oae

fc once; l)£ - keu she, the whole world;

16 WORDSo CHAP, III.

keu tseeti, to recommend; $j£ ^ kce,; ]ca;: to arrange: $fc 3^1 paou keu, to patronize; ^ JljL seih ken, detail; J^ JL keu che, conduct; j^ .Jj£ leangkeu, •twice; 4^ II: keu fa, to bring forward; A. jfa. ta keu, loudly; ^ ^ ^ ^ keu show che laou, a job; jjt JpL tae keu, to raise; £fr ^ keu jang, to elevate; ^j^ tih keu, eminent; ^- ^ keu meers, to dispense ; ^ J^ kaou keu, to inform against, and many others. In this manner the meaning of the cha- racters is multiplied to a very great extent, and the most common ones ar« subject to almost infinite variations.

17. It is therefore no email lask 10 become sant \vith the symbols of the Chinese language. Tiir best plan is to become ac^:-: ;- V({ with the <v,rn- mon ones first, aii<3 tlien to study the combinations. Having learnt a few hundred f*f these, others will occur, and rivet themselves in the memory al *iost mechanical- ly, until! the student masters a sufficient number. Let it never be forgotten, however, that undivided attention must be given to this subject by every one, who wishes to make real progress in the language; for it is only by bard labour, that a Chinese scholar can be formed.

CHAPTER III.

1. WE hare already intimated that the Chii- symbols form a system of ideography, so that every character expresses an idea. Thus jfc te, earth, J^ kwang, broad, fli keang, to speak, ^. tsae, ia, P^. tseay.ay! Of some, however, the meaning has been 1*.:-,t../«n{l iithr.-.'s serve as mere expletives, and arc used <miy |i»i ihe >'kr of euphony, as J$~ he, and $L yay.

2. lr:o« isks upon this subject we shall co-- :r^ 'jurseV 'jipally to the written language,

:HATV tit. -jRiwa. It

only notice the oral pBedhm, in so far as it stands in re- lation with the other. The Chinese language is exceed ingiy dissimilar to one wegU **> toagxies, and the Eur?i peau stuclent at^yerv stt- 'he greatest discrepa^

ties, if not the utmost contrariety, jis cornered with all that he has been hitherto accustomed to. The sooner, therefore, su« h alearr?* can;di\esthiiiiselt of Ms former ideas of Grr^mrnar^tht better. A.jDcitf^ene hereopenfe before his eyes? and the more completely he can localize himself in this new sphere, the more easily will ne com- prehend the structure of the Chinese tongue.

3. Referring to the above enumeration of characters, it will be seent tb. ^uagc m i», which ha*

so maaj syrribol*; o» foi > suppose

that they weic fonned according ic the w^ats of

and that no ;chatacler was framed, ttnl^as a new ides rei)dered it. rieces^ar. Them must ha^e been a

great demaad for t^mh^ among a series of writers, who lif ed during a period of more than ^0 centuries, aod who touched almost upon every topic oi literc* penning volume upon volume, on each subject, if therefore, it may not be considered 4he rirhest language. {as far as the number of^ords is concerned,) it yields the palm of superiority to very ^few.

4. The Chinese is remarkable for an abundance oi synonymes, which were perhaps found necessary, either to remedy the defect of a monosyllabic t ngue, or to aid in the rythmus. A great number of these have at most the same meaning, at any rate i* is difficult to dis- cern the shades of difference between some of them; take, for instance, the characters for expressing the idea of examining; they are. ^ cha, jj£ ch£, ^ sang, % kaou, ft kc, ^ kew, ft sin, jfc keen, ^ aieen, ^ tau, Sj ^Sn^ |&j seuo, jg% yen, |g yug, .£- keen, ^j| kwan^ j^ sbe, ^ keaou, ^ hih, j£ she.^fr kan, 4 »inr|^ fang, |i ke«, ^ kwei» |^ seang,and ^ hTh, all of which, either separately or combined, bave this meaning. So also the : charac* teis&j speaking ;Las f£ ktiang,

18 WOBDfc, CfiAP. ill.

|£. tan, ^ yun,1l yu, jq yufr,.|fe- lun, ^ fcaou, _ seu, &e.

5. The great resources of the language, however. consist in its capacity for forming compounds. Phrase? containing two words may be divided into four classes: 1. When both the characters are synonymous, as -^ ^ cha cha, to investigate: H !g shea seay, to writer $£ $L hae urh, a child: fj || seTh shuh, accustomed. 2. When one of the characters gives a a general, and the other a definite meaning, as ^ yf seu taou, tautology; in this instance, >^ taou, to speafc, gives the general, and ~|£ seu, to reiterate, the definite sense. Jjl jjfc sanyen^ sterny severe; where ^ yen, regulates the meaning; and $. ^ keaou pwan, to transfer, where 3t expresses the definite idea, 3. When two characters respectively contribute to give a new 'but cognate idea: thus $£ $§- pwan 16, a snare, from $£ pwan, ropes thrown about to entangle, and $t lo, threads of silk: ^ ^ pei pwan, to rebel, from ^f" pei, to turn the back on, and $m pwant to revolt: (^ -f^ tung pwan, a companion* from 8 tung, together with, and ^ pwan, a^b associate, 4. When by the juxta-positioa of two characters an idea is elieked, which is not inherent in either of them: as j? ^ fang peen, alms, from ^r fang, a square, and ^ peen, convenience: _jfc i seen giing^ a teacher, from $L seen, previous, and i sang, bcra: > ^ ling gae, your daughter, from ^- ling, honourable^ an(! ^ gae, to Jove.

6. The first class is the most numerous. The Ch^ nese, much delighting in euphony, group a great many characters together, merely for the sake of s«»und. Thus they say, ^fe. j$L e fuh, clothes; £ ^jr sfeg ming^ life. Or they form the words isriih a view to greatest dis- tinctness in the sounds^ and to prevent mistakes. Thus they combine »}§ $£ e yu^, for joyful; *t& e, alone, raight signify a hundred other things,, but by this cdlo- eaison its meamiig is fixed. So tbey say, fc ^ tszc seu, regular; there are so many words pronounced tsze, thai the latterr whe« cnunriated, ^ooM not distinctly

. riii. woum IS

convey the proper idea meant by tsze. This is the great secret, 'Why, notwithstanding the paucity of indi* vidual sounds, and the great sameness with which the characters are pronounced, there still exists so much distinctness in the spoken language. But these com. pommfe are already definitely fixed by the force of habit. and cannot be put together at •random, something like our words topsy turvy* harum scarum, and similar ex* presskms. A fine ear will soon discover the propriety and euphony that exists in this juxta-positkm of wotxis. In fee spoken language these synonymes occur more frequently, for the above reasons, than in the written. Let it, however, not be imagined, that the above com* pounding characters can only join with one associate; for there are several that may combine with two ae three others, with equal justice. To give an instance of the ainazing^exuberance of the Chinese languge we <juote the following combinations: ^ ^fr w^n ho, *fy yjj* hoHuib, jfr $L koyung, jg ^ s&rng ho, $& 3f ho ping, JL ?0f t'bae ho, and f& ^ ho kite, all of which mean harmony, peace, concord* &c. So also * $ hwan he, ^ $k he 16, 4 ft fee yu«, and $t ^ bin he, whieh mean joy, aaad a hundred others, with as many variations. Besides these, there are a few characters that are always used together, as ft ft gae tae7 cloudy, atid ->]; yg sha imm, priest; a few also are repeated, as jg: jn£ pe pe, arranged iu order; and the language itself admits of tautology to a considerable extent

7. The second class is far less numerous, and there exists yet no Dictionary that has eareMly collected them, either native or foreign. A few will be found inters- persed in every lexicographic work, and especially iu Morrison's. They ought to be made a peculiar subject of study, otherwise many passages and phrases will rie-> eessarily be misunderstood. $$ ^ kwei yin, for io- gtwace, means defalcation, which a beginner, pethap% would translate, to tose^money: j^ ^ kung kv?^, CK- ercises of a literary nature, and by -no means, meritorious tasjks. To fee able to understand and use this class of

£0 WORDS, CHAP. XII

properly famishes the best proof of real progress in the study of Chinese lore.

8. To the third class tnany words similar to our bricklayer, shcomaker, &c, belong. Under this head * Te also reckon a great number of metaphorical expres- sions, such as H X. ko tsub, to bind up the feet, gene- rally used for being fettered, or hampered;^ $£ kwang kw£n, a bare stick, a sharper: 7)* A seaou jin, a lit- tle man, a worthless fellow: ^ 4j| hwan fei, the soul flying, used for fainting; and many others, in which the Chinese have shown very great ingenuity. We ought here to remark, that it matters very little, whether in our acceptation of the words, the compounding characters are adjectives, substantives, or verbs; and Whether tfc<*y may be united with others belonging to a different class, the Chinese draw no such distractions, and amalgamate words at pleasure, no matter to what class they original- ly belong.

9. The fourth class, certainly the most difficult, is not remarkable for its richness in primary ideas, but for its utility in describing scientific objects, or words that have been introduced by progressive civilization* such as $1 $f[. seun foo, a Lieut. Governor: jfc. jf sfawuy sse, an admiral: %& j§fe twan choo, a fault, an error: ^f ^ wae ko, surgery. The student should imt separate tfcese expressions, but consider them as compounds; just as he woutl pollysyllabie words in any language, and thus read waeko, and not wae ko, no more than he would pronounce, or write sur gery, or trans actions.

1(1 We should not be far wrong in affirming, feat the number of compounds in Chinese is greater than that of single characters, though most of the original ideas are conveyed in monosyllables, as is also the case in many instances in our own tongue. The Chinese language, moreover, is £b well adapted to form new compounds, that the stock appears to be inexhaustible. As, however, every thing in Chinese Grammar depends Oc the collocation* of words, it is by DO fnea&s a& indi& feiettt' i&atttr w&kfe d fee two jp&^tO3 be put fce&re

CHAP. if*. woitm 21

and which behind; a transposition either deranges the whole idea, or gives rise to a new one ; thus 3t i seen s£ng, conveys the idea of "teacher;" hut trans- posed "born before/* So also -ft i g£n choo, a patron, hut ' t Jft, choo g&it, the grafce of God, And ty g| chung kwo, China, but H *f* kwo chung, the middle of a kingdom.

11. There are a great many characters, which though not forming a single idea, are very frequently found in company: such as ^ ;Q- tth hing, the prac- tice of virtue. >f~ H jin e5 tefwolence and* justice;

^J HP le hae, advantage and injury : ^t $8, t&ou le, the principles of reason. The line of demarcation be* Iween compounds and adventitious collocations cannot be drawn so definitely, that there should not be occasionally an approach to either side, IB regard to the above mentioned classes, it ought also to be remenibered, that they are not so distinct, as' our general rules would geem to intimate; still this arrangement may enable the student to classify the compounds with which he "meets critically, and thus considerably assist his memory.

12. Though each of the last three classes have a distinct meaning in combination, yet they may occasion- ally be used separately; thus the compound JL H yen tsze, signifies together, faither and mother; butthej- may in certain connections be also read jS. yen, stem, and H tsze, kindt whicii^are the original meanings <tf the terms. So ^ ^ teth yen, a shuttle-eock3 may also signify, to tread Upon a swallow; which meanings are conveyed by each character separately,

13. In the collocation of two characters there is a • great tendency to antithesis ; a peculiarity in which this

language surpasses others. Expressions like these, Jj£ & hih pih, black and white; ^f jt haou tae^ good and bact; ^ jt- tung che, rootion and rest; ^ £ Ban he^ male and female; ^ ^r laouyew, old and young; occur again and again, where other lan« guages do not require them. Compounds are also form- ed by putting a negative particle Before an adjective, it tibe opposite inemiog; as fc ^f pub

23 WORDS. CHAP. HI.

haou, bad; ^ |^ pub me, ugly, &e* this class is numerous.

14. Compounds do not merely comprise two chfr tacters, but sometimes many; as ^ ]g ^ tseen le king, a spy glass; ||r H~ ~Jfe sew hwuy ehang, an abbot; $. 3^ A wae yangjin, a foreigner. There are scarcely any verbs or adjectives of this class, and most of the triple compounds signify ideas that hare been introduced into the language, since the march of intellect has made some progress.

15. Compounds of four characters, are such as these, ^ X iit $1 s&ng seay keen peih, an abbr&> viation ; jj& ' ijfe. ^ ^ paou heen shin shin, detesr tation; words of ibis class are either strictly speaking compounds, as j% ^ ^ ^ seang Iwan che tsing, attachment; and ^ S^ ^ ^ sbwuy sze yew kefli, a post captain ; or they consist of the mere repeti* tion of two -compounds, as ^ )§. ^- ^ paou ehangfungkeang, the defences ,(ofa country;) ^ ^ i> Jfc kin «he yuh yg, delicacies: ^t' >u> ^ J^ sang sin ine^ k, abandoned, or they are ciflcumlo^ cations, such as ^ ^ ^ l& chow neen che nuy, within the cmnpass of e year; /^ /^ jfc jfe kwei tsan woo te, greatly ashamed; flL jli ^(t "fe kea tseay ming sfl^ pretence. Still, whatever they may bef they convey a single idea, more or less forcibly express- ed. There are very few of five characters like $| yf-

Ui Jx $ lo foo san shihlan, the dendr(*bium; an3 fl $J. St.; if IS keen ts^g die yen yu, appthegms.

Those of six are mere frequently met with, a« ^ ^ ^ 56 ^ jt Paou heo shin tung king sze,

learned; ^ ^ ^ ' $ ^ ^ tw^aa chwai^

ching s^i yen wei, majesty.

16. It cannot be denied that seme of these latter compounds may be resolved into distinct significations, still the native reader considers them as expressing one idea, and the meaning thus conveyed by the aid of a animal: c£ ..ymbols is fixed more impressively upon hk iniod. The ormatioii of these words seems to have

just in the ssme manner a$ our adopiioa of

CHAP. in. WORSS. 23

compound Greek words, as we ourselves stood in want

. of proper tenpis for subjects of which ctur ancestor*

/ could not form the slightest notion. The Chinese lan~

guage possesses, moreover, one advantage; it .can place

a great number of words before substantives^ as epi-

thets, and thus incorporate the description of Ihe subject

mth the word itself, so as to represent it under the

most varied forms, (See the Syntax.)

17. A great many compounds, if we may call them so, are. also formed, by putting at the end of a string of words either J& chay, or £§ teih; as ff ' Ifc ffij ta yu teih, a fisherman; ^ ^ $3 tso heae teih, a shoe* maker. Whether we denominate these phrases, or simple compounds, it is all the same; the idea becomes by this process concentrated, thus ^ %§• cho chay. a maker; ^J 3$ hingchay, a waiter. $1 31 seang puh taou chay, incomprehensible, u»* $L ^ fa $£ irij »fifc yew kwei lieu teih, irregular; ^ *~g" ^ ^ puh k'hoshay tefli, unpardonable. (For the formation of words bj annexing $£ uA, and ^ ^s*e» see the (Chapter W Particles.)

18* A little study of the language soon convinces one, that it not merely consists of words, but in a great measure of sentences, or phrases, which are used, ae our law terms and proverbs. This ought to be kepi ii» view by the student, and as many of these trite express sions committed to memory, as that faculty is abte to retain*

1^» The Chinese have no idea of our grammatical distinctions, aor has a singte native writer touched upon the subject^ Whatever, therefore, is said in the second part of this work must be understood as an attempt to place the language under grammatical rules, in order to facilitate the study of it to Eumpeans. A word may be used as a substantive, adjective, or verb, just as it pleases tfc^ speaker or writer, and its position shows in what sense it ought to be understood; for instance, jfe yu, with, may also signify to give; :ty yih, to oppress, may also Be tta disjunctive partite; ^ tsin, mayb^ e

tlfg 'JtOtm. CHAK I.

relation,.*)? to approach, or ftea?; >£ che, may signify trf, or toamveat; f^r neang, to lookup, or the preposition to, We find r4s0 the same word repeated, when the first is a verb, and the second a substantive or adjective, for instance jji ^ te te, to treat younger brothers as such; ^ .JL 3\ $• she shs fei fei, to declare what isrightio be rightr««id what is V7roug to be wrong:

^S- ' i& M -S • • 'mou ^aoa wo° ^» ^° esteem what is good rmd hate what is bad,

20, The Chinese themselves divide all words into j| ^ heu tsze, empty ch^ , or jp& ^ tsoo

tsxef anxyiaries, and '|f ^ shih tsze$ solid ones; th* former are the particles, the latter the otbur pails o| speech. These are again subdivided mto .$ 3p. living characters, verbs, or ^c '4" Sise ts«e? a»d adjec

BOOK 11

GRAMMAR, ETYMOLOGY, CHAPTER I.

THE

1. WE ought -here to ^ premise that the Chinese wifb its cognate tongues has no inflexions, and that alt the grammatical distinctions, which are thus indicated L* other languages, are here conveyed by particles an6 generic terms.

2. We suppose that the student is acquainted witb general Grammar, and therefore spend no time in defini- tions. Whatever is here said points strictly to the pecu* liarities of the language, without any attempt at adspt; bg this • tongue to tbe Lgititt trremmar* We intend to

C&AJB. I.

give the Chinese, as a whole, such as it is> independent of any other language, to enable the reader to become fully acquainted with its idioms.

ON THE ARTICLE.

J&. In most instances, the Chinese language leaves the article unexpressed: as ^ g ^ j& %, j muh tseang tae ch6 tsze leaou, the carpenter has brought the table: ft ± ^ >^v ^ he6 s^ng tsae juh ub, the pupil has just entered the house. When* however, a stress is laid upon the word, either £ ke, the third persona! pronoun, or %j chay, the relative pronoun, or the demonstratives }fc teze, $% ^ze,or^ pe, are used to indicate it: as Jj£ Hi f£ ^P ^5 l&jL ke 6 pepuhklioshaymeen. the sin oan- not be pardoned :£ ^ ^ ^. fo ke jin hwae tub sin, the man harbours malicious intentions: Jfe ^> 1ft ?T ~j& & tsze tsze shang k'ho kea yay, this child is still praise-worthy: ^f IS ^f> Sfe It hZf* s^°° pull ke^ ko, the tree does not bear fruit: ;ffc. j| -^ ^- H. 1S. pe tse tsing chun sang gow, the woman became a widow in her youth: A ^ lit ^ ^ 1fe ^ Ifr ^ jin chay woo tih gan nJlog jin chih boo, IiiAV can the man void of virtue hold an office ?

4. la the conversational language 2t $9 chay ko, and ^ ^ na ko, serve the same purposes. It ought to be remarked, that all these pronouns may be translated this or that; but still the rule holds good, that wherever a definite article is necessary, the above words are used. The most frequent term employed in books is j£ ke.

5. The indefinite article is, in highly finished literary works, never expressed; in books wiitten in the conver- sational style, and in common parlance it is conveyed, though not very frequently ,^>y — yih, — 'fffi yih ko>

*— • ^H yih ko, and — ^ yih ko, (an abbreviated fomofijj ko;) »g 1$ -jfc — ^ >7> ^ petfj yih kong shale, gave him a pear: ^ — ^ ^

26 SASS&. oH&r. i.

& £§ jfc k'han yih ko yen sih telh ncu, he saw a beauty: ^ >fgj :$f % yew ko haou e5 having a

Sood intention. Almost all the Chinese substantives ave their particular numerals, which, put before the noun, serve to circumscribe the indefinite article, as "~ $5* DL y& chih chuan, a vessel: — > -ft ^ yih keen sze, a business: — ^. ^ ^ yih chun k'bw&e sze, a pleasing affair: *% j)jfe — • j|t yu te£ yih fcaon, an edict. (See the paragraph on numerals.)

OK

6. Before proceeding further with the noun, we must here remark, that there exists a very great differ- ence between the conversational style, and works strictly literal, which will be amply treated of under the Chapter on Style; we shall only observe here, that we intend henceforth to distinguish these two modes by conv. (conversational,) and lit. (literary.) '

7. The genitive is expressed either by position. preceding the nominative, or by H che, (lit.) and j$ teih, (conv.) l*hus A. 4 jin uh, a man's house: ^ H theen sing, heaven's stars. It is thus thai many compounds are formed, as ^ $r shoo fang, book room, a library: ^f ,tjt yu shwuy, rain water. Regard to euphony and practice, will teach us whether we ought merely fco indicate this case by position, or to use )£ che, and IHj teih; for one may say, A ]Jt ^ jin che uh, and J^ b§ 3, t'heen che sing, without changing the idea. If, however, several words precede, these particles must always be used; as ^ 33L ^

ta<>u le che ching, the truth of right principles:

# -jfc A ^ % ^r ywn fei'fhajin & woo, it was not the affair of other people: £& % It H che shen chay che foh, to know the happiness of flje good: "^ H * fe A chung kwo teih jin, a man of the centra! empire, a Chinese. In the colloquial style jfc te, and ^ te, on account of sound. ?»rft -rften substituted for §§

CHAP. I. CASES. 27

' Every class of words, when placed before the noun, may require the genitive particle, just as if they were nouns; x 9* ft 'ft *t ^ ts6 hing che yang, the man- ner of doing any thing: A ^ ^ jin che to, many people: H |L >£ /& shea leang che sin, a good aeart^ and similar expressions: (see also the paragraph upon the particles ^ che, and jHf teih.) It is well to remark also the following formations : ^5 |f$ teeh teih, made of iron: Jfi 1$ shih teih, stony: ^ W *niih teih, wooden: ^ %§ seay teih, written.

8. The dative is seldom expressed. The following may he noticed: $ H #. . jlf- ffc e sin me tse joo? we provii:3 you with fuel and rice: ;$fe 41? ^ A she g5n chung jin, to show favour fo all men. In cases where emphasis is required, the particle j^ yu, is used; *&• ^ ^ ^ yu ke tuh, r^ead io him, (this may how- ever also signify, cause h«n to read:) ^ J88 JL ^1 fi yu P^ng yew sfcwo hwa, to speak to a friend; ^ ^ $L JL A ieih tseeri yu kung jin, to give inoney to workmen: ^ ^ % ^ yu gno Mn laes seize and bring him io me: fa heang, ^f yu, anci ^ yu, (the latter merely on account of the similarity of sound) are often used for ^ yu, as in the following jjastanceir, ^ ^ Jfa ^p yu gno woo kao, it is JQO- thing to me: ^ A Ht ^ 3& 7uji» woo pe jah^ no advantage to men: gj fe fa w£n yu gno, ask me: fa ifc ^ heang t'ha shwft, tell him: ^ ^ ^ ^ heang yang shang t'haou, ask the Hong-merchants, or demand from them. Speaking to., may be expressed by ^ -flfc ^| tuy ta keanar, speak to him: ft ^ ^ ho ta shw6, or ^ ^ <|Jt te to shwo, tell him^(conv.) JFor, or instead of, is mostly ex- pressed by 3fc wei, and occasionally by 4*£ tae, and ^ te, as }^ A ^ -j^- wei jin keuen ming, (lit,) to sacrifice one's life for men: <fc A $t taejin fc§e to da for one; ^ ® ^ 18 J^ te kw^kea ch'huh leih^ to exert one*s self for the state. The words keife, aad 1^ pe, may occasionally serve to fee dative.

9- Theacensatw. is altogether indicated by

28 CASKS. CHAP. |.

HOB; the niK however, that it follows the verb, is oc- casionally reversed. Thus m.the regular way. £ 3) hw6 le, to obtain profit; A A ^ 1& tt jin jin keae ft tsae, erery body has made money. In- ifcmces where it is put before tKe verb are, ^t 5" 4$ ^ ^f ykftsze too fei leaou. all the money is spent; f * ' X A ~ HL $t ft rcae pan kung jin yth^feae cb£ chuh. tie ccmpradores and work- men were all driven out (See the Syntax.)

10. The ablative is formed in various ways; thus our Jy is expressed by -^fc pe, as ^ A JL P6 Pn keen, seen by men ; or by ji e, as W Jj Ht ^ e kTh keang tsin, to enter by force; this prep"-itio:i. however, more frequently describes the instrumentality, like our irith; as Jtt >? jjt A ^ taou sh& jin, to kill mea with die sword; H ^ JH A e vm- ^"h jiu, to subdue men with kindness, g) yewr is rtot only used to indicate the place from whence any tl <ies,

but ako serves to express our by of tt rac-

tion, as ft ft ~fa ££ *&. yew van? shang king le, managed by the Hong-merchants ; <f ft ft ^ yew inun eh 'huh lae, come out at the door; dj J|

^j R yew yue taou man. from Canton to

Fokeen province. ^ vu. is also used to express •ur by, ami tftrovgk ; as £ ^- ^ sze yu mio, fed by the people; and sometimes;, but not often, -J- yu, is thus employed, as ^ ^ ^ -J- ^ paou boo gno y« ping, he protected rrie by soldiers. On account of./or, or in lehalfofc is conveyed by |^ ^ei, and Ie6= frequently by^Q tae. or ^ te> as J| vjfc Ife wei joo tso, I do it on your account- ^ fi $$ X tae heung pwan le, I manage it for my brother; ^~ ^ ¥ ft *e tsae hae pa. afraid r.bout the child.

cr K ^ y^^^?St tsuD?r aBrl ^ tsze» ex-

ne;KS ^ ^ ^ * kea le lae. come

ttel- t < t ^ * * 5^ tsze

t" ae pin. frr- .vent

JT at, is convey

S t&Sv. J- ViK ^- yu, df .-£ bV

£ tf» Jt -£-

€HAP. 1. «5KSRE». 29

tsaou miih, there is no yerdure or wood on the hill: X ft, 7 /v H j& fheen leaner vu jin chc sin, heavenly goodness in the human heart; *fe £ ^ £ weikewchoo ke, to seek it in oaeV Ji >*t- jjL ^ff che yu che shen, tarest in extreme goodness; £, S * *5r J* ^ £ Iten Ife^g neen yu ching mow yft, for two years be traded in the city. With, is expressed by _Jfe{ yu? and £0 timg, as J^ JV ^B ^2 yn jin seang ho, to live peaceably Trith people; A) ^ JiJ £\ tucgjoo ch'huh wae, to go afcvr.-aJ. ;vith you: ^ kea? is used ic the same manner. 0 •. v.sed before words expressing time,

are generally n as -jf- >^ :i ^ ^£ ^

^ Ht sliih yew uA tsae seun show fang yuhl on the 12th year he went to inspect the districts and mountains ; tp " 8 & ^ *fr tseih 3^ ch'huh sing ching, on that very day he left the provincial city. The use of ^ yu, to express *n is by no means of frequent occurence.

1 1 . The vocative is cither not expressed at all, as ^ 3%T %* lao^ yay lae, come here, sir ! or by ^ yay, after the word, as ^ ^fc. ^ yu yay lae, come hither Yu ! or by ^ o, as ^5 ^ f^ lang keun o. oh my husband ! In conversation uj va? is sometimes .put after the word, to indicate this case; Jj^ yu> and

?jt. e, are likewise used in this manner in good wri- tings: ^ vf- gae}^a?and Ff hen, are frequently used in exclamations, .and -j^ tsae, at the end of a sentence. (See the paragraph on interjections.)

12. The student will readily perceive, that the Chi- nese cases, as given above, do not exactly correspond with ours, but further study will teach him where to use these particles, and where to omit them, whilst it will also :«rd him in the construction of seiner

ON GESD£R.

13, Chinese nouns, grammatically considered, have no gender; but whenever the saUoe of things is pointed out. there are generic terms to convey tihe sane: t\v

30 NUMBER. CHAP. I.

man beings, )&> nan, and $- neu, express male and fe- male; for animals generally, & kung, and -#* moo; for cattle in particular, $L mow, and >ffc pin; for birds, %JL heung, and Jft. tsze; for inanimate things, (9»j kang. [nasculine, and ^ jow, feminine: j?L keen, and $$ kwao, or )^ ym, and ]5§ ya?ig, for the male and female principles of nature, have their origin in the popular idea, fnai sex pervades the universe, and that all inan- imate things partake either of one or the other quality.

14, The words above mentioned are never added to the substantive, unless with a view express the gender; as ^ ke, a fowl; || ^ ke kung, acock; ^ -Jg- be mow, a hen; & jfy ^ & Wt ^ fr & % tsze iween yang we heaou she pin mow chay, I do not yet know whether these sheep are ewes or rams; i

^ ^t -^ — sang tsze nan neu ko yih, he brought forth children, onfc son and one daughter. The appli- cation of these characters is very easy; they seldom oc- cur, and only when it is a matter of importance, that the gender should bs known.

ON NUMBER.

15. Every Chinese noun may be expressive of tbe plural as well as the singular, thus J\^ jiu, may be a man, and in en; ^ neu, may he a» ox, atid oxen; 4f it heo skng, disciple, or disciples. Unless it be distinctly indicated that a wcrd has a plural signification it is left doubtful. The plural form of the noun is pointed out, when necessary, by the use of particles: we shall here enumerate the particles which are used for the purpose, beginning with the most common, and afterwards ex- plaining them. ^ *&ng, #9 mun, ^ P^.ifl ^J»

"^ tsaou, -j^- tse, ^sd ^ chow, which a*e put after &e substantive: so also ^ k5, fj| choo.? jl. chung, t* fan, and j| shoe; sil of which are put b«fore tbe :o6iUt, feud are strrctfy shaking collective adjectives, though used to convey the sense of the plural; so also l<eae, j^f ban^ ^ heu, and ^ too ; oak these erally follow. . Chia«waa feadb

CHAP. I. DUMBER, 3}

•

plural particles; in good •Writings they ate still more scarce. IB many instances, t^here we should rssreiSer them indispensably necessary, the genius of the C. hinsse language, does not demand them at all; and on the other hand, they are sometimes used, where they appeal- to us superfluous.

18. The most common plural ^article is ^ t&ng, as A, <^ jin t&ug, men: when two or three subje'cts are enumerated, one after the other, this particle is affix* «d to the last: as & A X ft ^ nuiig1 foo kui>g ^Iseang t^ng, agrieulturists and artisans: $ ^/ ^ ^t 1§ A, -?• P^en ping» w&n woo, jshang1 jin tang, soldiers, civilians, military officers, and merchants, (the and is always left ouU) $^ mun, is more frequently used with the personal pronouns, as 3$ ^ g*to mum, •' wsj ^ '1W j°o raun, you; sometimes in conversation it is annexed to substantives: ^ pei, is employed when u class is to be indicated, as g, ^ 6pei, th« wicked; "^•' ^ tseen peijvirid >$t ^ how pet, predecessors, and successors; ^ || ^ ^ wang e die pei, the unjust; |^_^ ^ X tung pei ehe jin, equals; f tsaouVand^S luy, are nearly of tbe same import as ^ pel, but not so frequently used; thus * ^ kwan Isaou, means officer^ ; ar*d H |^ fei luy, vagabonds: 1^- tse, and i^ chow, indicate likewise classes, and kinds, companies; -g- ^ WOo tse, we, is used by good writers.

£). ^ Chung is very frequently used, as |^ ]tf chung sbang, all the merchants, or the merchants: §1 i chung sing, all living things, or .ereatiires, mankind, |i choo, is also coro«t?on, a«. ^ 5fe i lfii-" '4Ht jSi chuo seen sang keae woo piag', the tea- chers are all well; ^ % choo ivith, all things, things-' So also 4^ k6, as ^ A kojin, every man, or men; -^ ^ k6 choo, every place, or places:^ slioo, has nearly the same signification, as f| choo, though less frequently used, as ^S i: shoo sze, scholars; %, fan> is more coiimion, asjl A fan jin, all men, or men; /C fan, is often preceded by $& choo, as JL *$) fsm wuk thir>g&t or ^ ;t ?% ff dioo fa^ wub hteo

tfUMBBB, CHAP, Ju

^ Keae, and >&p to, frequently occur m good Writings as well as in conversation: as A ^f j& :C jin keae ehe cbe, all men know it; it, -?• Sf~ 3? %* foo tsze keae hing tih, father and son both practiced vir- tue; ift jt <f f t. jfc foo neu keae tae mei mow, the women were all beautiful ; $} $L %$

>f> ^fc p&ng yew too pub tsae, the friends are all ab- sent; 4ft keu, is most frequently found in literary com- position, as /H fft % W M > ^ yew so sze wuhkeu puh show Jbe received none of the things that were given; ^ ^ ^ ^ mcen yang keu sze, all the sheep died; ^ %$ 1jC 4-" ^eu,n ^e ^ett tseuen, the weapons were sli prepared. ^ Han, is less frequent, as ^ fy ^ ^ joo han tsung che, the scholars all followed him,

20. There are a. variety of other modes of expressing the plural: by repetition, as ^ & kea kca, every fami- ly, families; 0 g jihjih, every day, or daily. By the word j£ to, many, as ^* g A ^ tfe ^ ^ chung kwo jin to ch'huh wae fang, many Chinese go to foreign countries ; or by the numerals Jj pihf and H wan, (but ^ tseen, less frequently,) BS lg *Jr pih kwah/ihe Mandariiis ; ^ ^ pih pwan, various ways;

H ^S waatih, all virtues, or virtues, || -^ wan she, for many ages; ^ ^ tseen ke, a variety of plans. There are some peculiar forms of expression, as ^ ^ sze hae, four seas, or the seas; i 3? woo fang, the five points, or all points; J. ^ woo ping, the ele- ments; i ^ woo lun» the relations of life; JL ^_ woo kuh, the various kinds of grain; JL ^ wootseo, the different ranks of nobility; Jt «^ woo we, the five, or various tastes : because the Chinese, either in reality or imagination, assume them to be so many in number. Such are also jL ^ kew chow, the nine parts of the world, or the whole globe; $U % kew Jew> creatures, &c. For excess and multitude, ^ keun, ^ yun, and $r fuug, are often used, as ^ yV keun jin, many met*.; $& $i *j£ $i chueu chih yuB tseih, the vessels assembled irferowds; '^ |^ ^ j$t toau tsih fnng ',::,% the thieves rose up, as thick as bees : we find also,

€H4f>. 1, JSUMSEB,

jiu joo iin, or ^u & joe sa», men lifco threats or hills, that is in great multitudes; or shorter without -$$ joo, 6s JL li Jin san, or X $$• j*u ^ae? mejl *** con- siderable numbers, like hills ami seas. Some, the Chi- nese express by j|£ soo, and H' ke, a$ ^ %} ke kea some sentences, and Ijfc. JJ soo jKh, several days.

21. An idiomatic peculiarity, which the Chinese has in common with the Japanese, is the addition of a ge- neric term to various nouns, for the sake of enumeration, which we may compare to mil habit of sayitig heads of oattle, *?w?m of silk, sheet* of paper, &c, But eipres* sioHS of this kind are not of frequent occurrence witn us; whilst in Chinese few isoims are found to which one* two, or even three af these terms isuot applicable* We shall here quota the most coimacm.

ii§ Ko, is applied to a great variety of soufig, espe* eiallyin conversation; when written in the above man* ner, it stands ibr living beings, but for inanimate things it changes into ^ ko3 or the abbreviated fonn ^ ko; fewwriters> however, make this grammatical dk l» «•.-.*- tioin Thus — 1SJ X yihko jin, one man; '£. -|g ^aa ko pan, three planks; £. >f-/g^wsoko ping, *ive cakes.

4 Chih, is applied to vessels, animals, and si objects; as m? ^.|&&ze chih cliuen, or|& 1RI chuen sse cliih, four ships; Z ^ ^ san chihyatig three sheep; JL ^ %£ woo chih cho, five tables.

%\ Tuy,and ^ shwang, are used with all the nouns, that can be arranged in pairs ; as — ^ ^[ yih tuy heae, a pair of shoes; — ^ ^ yih shwang wS, a pair oi stockings: and further, as in other languages.

j}4 Chang, is used for every thing that can be spread out; as — ^ ^yihchang ehe, a sheet of paper; ^-*

$k ^ ^ yih changk&oushe, aproefematioB,(that is, a paper containing one;) — ^ pg ^ yih chang mun ]een, a door screen.

^> !Pa5 >^ nsodfor things that have a handle; as 7- IS fl yih pa taou, a sword; ^ j& saou pa, a besom, and a variety of others.

^jL Che. is. used for things that are straight, in thr

CHAJP, I .

of Branches^ as — %$i Ht y& che peen, a whip; —"LUT y& che chub, a flute.

$fc Teaou, very much resembles the former, in its use, as — ^ gj| yih teaou shing, a cord; — f^ ^ yth teaou ho, a river, &c.

8H Keen, is used for objects that comprehend space, &s buildings of every description: thus 3. $] ^ san Keen Sh, three houses.

^ Tso, BOW and then, also $f tso, designates places, as — M. ^5 yih tsoching, ac%; Z Jl 2> sari tea-jib, three towns.

tfj* Fuhs or X peih, are used for pieces, or parts; as

• y£ jjf yih pe9i poo, a piece of cloth, rt llg ^ urh fuh hwa, two pictures^

$ Keen, serves to enumerate things m general, as """ ^ yih keen sze, or ^ ff sze keen, an affair; gan keen, a case in law- in the former in- chun, is often used. This particle is like ko, arid^ ehih, and is often promiscuously em- ployed; as — 'ft ify yih keen san, a jacket; % ff -wuh keen, things; ^ ft ho keen, goods, &c. ^S!f Foo, means a set, a lot; as — «$ &. & yih foo Khe keut a set of instruments, or utensils.

$% Kwae, is used for pieces, or any thing substantial

and sol id fas — ^>5 yihkwaebbih, a stone: S j^

j^sankwae yin, three doUars; jg twan, @j and yucm,

are used for globular things; and^ fang, for pk--.-es;

as /-^ ^ ^ ^ yih faog choo juh, a piece of J.H?:!;.

W* Cbh\, a gust, a dash, a beam; as — )*4 JL y2i chin fungf, a gust of wind; — Rfc j& yih chin kwang, a beam of light; — ^ $$ yih chin yen, a puff of smoke: ^ chang. is used nearly in the same man- ner; as . — ^ 'j£- yih chang woo, a mist; — tfjfr g yih chang yu, a shower of rain.

K Paou, is used for bundles, as — £ ^ -fe yih paorv rrseea hwa, a bale of cotton; — t£ ^yi che5 a bundle of paper; so also #L cha, as — yih cba peih, a bundle of pencils ; — ^L ^ jib che, a bundle of paper: so also j^. so,

C Kea. for frames and machiner as — $i ^

CHAK -K NtTMBgU. 35

ih kea shwuy keu, a firfe. engine; — *j? ^ | swan pwan,.an abacus.

* Tan> for things of weight and burdens; as fa ^F yih tan hingle, a load of baggage— 4f |[ yih tan soo tsae, a load of vegetables

J?& Teen, for small things, drops, &,?., as — f^ yih teen she, a moment of time;.*- |fg g yih tee** rain, a drop of ink.

)?C Twan, indicates parts, and sentences; as — g. ^j- ^ yihtwansin wan, a piece of news; — £!L >fc yih twan te, a part of land.

4jf Kwan, enunserates things that are hollow; as — ^ Ipt yih kwan. peihr a pencil; — ^ ^"'3^b. bwah seaou, a pipe

|^ Kwan, »tke4$c teaou, enumerates law$5 -pip-jsceptg.- potitions, business, affaire, &c. as — |gt ^ yih kw sze, an affair;^ >ff -s ^ tsow tsingyih kwan, memorial.

Jfe Koo, for shares and parts; as — |£_ i ^ sange, a share in some trading concern: — yih koo shing, a bundle of twine

-ft Wei, and & ming, are used &r enumerating hu- man beings; the former, however, is mainly confined to persons of raiik; while \J yuen, is applied to gc^en> meat officers. For instance ^r j/% E9 -^ fan r^acfii szemiiig, four foreign sailors; J$ ^ ^ ffeseangkung san wei, three gentlemen; X *l S ^-w^n kwan yuen, ttirec civilians; ^L wei, is^ also used for as ^L 1i paou wei, a cannon. ^ TsSiBg,is used for a layer, a story, a set ; as — /f |g; y^b tsSing che, a sheet of paper ; — yf j?L .. yih ts&ng <ira-t a layer oftSles.^ So also 't chung, for duplicates, or terraces; as ^ ^ F9 urh chung mun, the second daor; — ^ tfi yitr chung san, the first of a series of hijjs.

•Jf Peen, signifies a slice, a flake, a bit; — % ^ yih peen seu^, a flake of snow; ^ Jf &- yib piiem eh6; a bit of paper; - -~ ft 1% yili|K^n.8iu, a note.

$| Ko, as well as •& leih, are used For gr as — ^ ^ yih ko chin •cboor-fe peaii: — , a r»ia o

16 NUMBER. CHAP. I.

Taou,is used for a whole; as — ^ ^L JJJL yih e ftib, a suit of clothes; — %? ^ yih taou shoo, s -whole work: >fc~ pun, and^ peeih are used exclusive- ly for books and papers ; fy keu, for enumerating sen- tences &nd phrascB; yjf, taou, and »f£ te£, for edicts and states papers; as ||- TJJ& £ ^ yu teg san taou, three gdigte; "g show, is applied to odes; as — ~f(~ ^ yih show she, a piece of poetry : |[ yfc, is used occasionally for TtKK&s and papers ; HS — f[ ^ ^ yih yS che t&een. a feund^ 0f gilt paper: ^ fuog, for enumerating letters: as — if f| yih fung gin, one letter.

^ Kewn, and ^lio, for congregated numbers; as -^t •ijz $; yihkeun neaou, a covey of birds; — ^ g| ^ yib feo fei t'hoo, a company of vagabonds.

1§ ling, is employed for carriages and caps: and ^ ckuec, for rows and files ; as — - *p -Jc qp yih chueu ping tipg, a ftle of soldiers: Jfe dbin, or.^choo, for trees v^ ko, for plants: ^. shing, and |^ leaug, fur car^ riages and sedan chairs:^ tnow, for plots of Isoid et groimd;^ ling, for ccats or jackets:^ t'iow, and V kl*QW,<br aoimalsor cattle: the latter also for swords, and the former for affairs.; as — |g ^ ^ yib t*how c^'hiia sze, a matrimonial affair: E peih^ for Jfeorses: -^ poo, for volumes, divisions: ]ff *;?.ou, for quiies of paper ;J$ man, for guns: 'M tsefe, for any thing jointed:® , for things witta smooth surface; as -^ ® i^ 5n$eti kifig^ three looking glasses: jf& te^, for sticking es ; a$ \E ,tt ^* || san tea kaou jo, three plas- w^n, for -enumerating cash: ^ tsan, for meals; as - - * ^yih t«an fa»5 a meal of lice: ^c ching, for lausicaftunes: $& <:huh, of polls: ^hw<i, for strokes: 7; tea, for blo^s:^- hang, for rows and columns :^t ehoo* tpr iaceDSe sticks: l^) hwuy, for parts, times: tl seun, for decades: ^ tae, for stages :^mei, orating, for pieces of fnfc: ^ kan, for bamboos: ^ chih, fer eases cf books:*:; wiln, for rolls of silk: /C wei, for fishes, and other ar^mals; Mi keuh, for chess boards or affairs: jfL ke\^\ ?>r rollg, books, chapters, &c. jfe. tsanv for •me .2y fbnued things ; lk Iea»g, for silver :

tr. ivosmm 37

22. The reader will no doubt perceive that most of these terms are attached to nouns, to which they bear some relation, either in shape or quaiiiy* and a frequent perusal of the 'foregoing paragraphs will enable the stu- dent to make a right use of them. We may add, how- ever, that they form an essential part of the language* and to omit them, when necessary, would be as great an offence against grammar, as to dispense with our articles and prepositions, when the construction calls for them, Several nouns take a variety of numerals, and in most instances tleir leaning is thereby modified. But en* phony, and the structure .of the language, often rec; them* where there exists no apparent necessity. The Chinese say, foriustaace, ^ /£,' poo 'peiL 'for cioih: ft $t fc JL lefiwei jiuheuag, benevolent brethren, or gentlemen, &c.' In most cases, hoivever, stnct enumeration of the subjegi is not omitted,

CHAPTEE It

TRB A2>ia^iVS- ..~ POSITIVE,

1 . Ta E recsark previously made, that Chinese wor<fe do not exactly belong, to ot*e particular class, applies also to the adjectire;' tfeu*Afa? great, and/!»8eaou, small, though generally used a& adjectives, may f>cea- sionally be changed into nouoti, as Jt JL ke to, its greatness; ^t ^ keseaou, its littleness; «o also into verbs; as ^ £. ta che, to enkrge it, Sec. On the oAer haud, many uouii:i occasionally assume tiie shape of ad- jectives by being placet before other substantives, as ^ ^ t'Kfeea chaoi>, H*e c^sfeal dynasty, ^ ^ ehr wuh, worfdly things g %. ^ che *$h Jia, vary hardhearted.

3 COMPARATIVE CH AS*. Tt.

2. - It is peculiar to the Chinese language to unite a great many words before nouns, wfcieb then assume the nature of adjectives; as Jl ^ ^ i& A fan yew ping teih Jin, *11 the sick; $ ft & '* * ' y ^ £ % yew ke caa e chuen mow yih cne tsih, the duty of insti- tuting enquiries into the trade of foreign vessels ; all the words are here placed hi relation to J| tsih, as if they were its epithets.

3. Much of the signification of adjectives depends upon their position. The common mode is to place them before the Boun ; as ^ A baou jin, a good man ; if two or three precede, they do not require a connective particle; as^ J*,&shenleang min, virtuous people; J^ .'Sfe vlt ;& tneiyen tseih nju, a beautiful modest wo* man. Where there are more than two adjectives, fc ehe, generally intervenes between them and , the sub* stantive; |t M #\ ^ ^ 1? g paouyole hae cbe kwan yueti, cruel and annoying officers. Two adjec- tires put together have rf ten ^§ teih, or£ chay, at the end; as J| )B % yaou yung teih, needful; j£ jj^ % be yea chajr, very severe.

4. Wtenevcr the substantive verb is implied, adjec- tivesare put after the aoun; as A 3& fa haou, be is a good man; Hi 3jfe sing m^ng. he is of a. savage nature. Phrases Kfce the following are u~e{£iK.y»it ; as j^ jfe & ;fc. t?h^i teche ta, the greatness .«of heaven and earth; & ii ^ ^ sin leang che kwan, the extent «f gene-

-Iu these cases the adjective by its position as» *he nature of a aoun, as hinted above. The for* of epithets like $» $ nuih teih, woodea; £:

ir§ kin teih, goidten; and A $ t'heeja tefla, he

^ very common.

COMPARATIVE.

©. We know «f no language that adopts so es of expressing the degrees of comparison, as She •i.e$-e. For tbe benefit, of the reader we shall here ^^npifculate all that has «oiste under our observafioa^ &hd trtistiie will endeavour to femilis^ixe himself phrases.

.' II. COMPARATIVE, 3$

6. Our more is expressed byjtkang; as Jt |£ Itmg mei, more beautiful ; when two objects are coin* pared with each other the latter is preceded by &;pe to compare; as . jJt # )*- 4l * g. It teze aeu pe pe ueu k&ng mei, this woman is more beautiful tfean that : jS kSng, is however, occasionally omitted; a& 3% )t ik $$ --^.gnopejoohaouyih seay^lam £»ihe? better tban you ; or jgfkeaou, is annexed ; as -Jfc

A ^ ^ .j£. ^ gno pe keaou joo k^ng baou? I am better than yom Sometimes £ k&ng is preceded by

* % seang tay ; as >^ ^ ^g ^ ^ ^^ 300 gno seaag tuy, gno k&ng haoti, compared with each other, I am better than you; the same idea is also conveyed by ^L iSJ keaou tuy. Furthermore, the word Jt k^ng is found in phrases like the following; as Jt ^f ^ j| kSngyewsbin yen, still more excessive; ^£ j§ ^ Jf pe shang kang fei,. he is still more fat; ^ ^ :f_ ij

}& )fe Pe * b^e ^^n§ ^aou ^wo *sze> that is much better than this. Ihere are also instances where jJtkSng, k followed by^yu; as f Sf.£ $:£&&&$+ W kin neen che kuh Mng fung shing yu tseen neen teih, the grain of this year is more abundant than the former year; or a phrase like the following may be formed: ^tfiM^^^MM5tkin waii ho cha Hng tsaou, shih fan chp kwo, we have taken tea earlier this even- ing, and eaten rice rater.

7. Besides what has been already said it will be well to notice the fallowing modes in which ?£ pe, is used ; as $K jt jfe ^ ne pe t'ha kaoii, you are taller than he ; ^ fa ^C *j^ ^ tsewT pe shwu}^ haou to. wine is much better than water; x g VC 7^ ^ j^ ^L ^ ji kung tseang pe puh tih mrag foo che yung.

the usefulness of the mechanic is not to be compared with that of the husbandman; ^ *$t >t J^ ^ ^ pub kan pe shing cluing hwat by no mean superior to the central flowery nation ; ^ ® ^fc JjS f® M •&& chay ko pe na ko yu£ fa haou, this i& much "-beUer than ::-.;i,t , ^Jt 1^ ^ ?»- ^ ^T ^ san shang ta pan puh k*ho pe, a pnvafe j^crchc,Titis inferior to tie chief of a fac-

'

40 cmiPAs&mB.. OTAF, v*.

ehay ko pe na ko yew ltat»a, this is better that : isc keaeu, is often used in the following as If 4$L |S£ tsuy keaon k'hingv a lighter critae ; & Q JS_ J£ ttrh muh feeaou kin, ear and eyes are very Dear : f$L ^1 M- Hi teen ke keaou kwau* to have the term more extended ; J£ ^ * ^ ^L j^ keaou tseen yew keeEWoo ts&ng, compared with what it was before, it Jbas been rather less thai* increased.

8. ^ Yu, as well as \^ kwo, aire often used to con- vey the idea of more: as^Jt'^ heen yu Yu,.tncre. excellent than Yu ; -^ ^ Jjj^ kwei yu yin- n'ior^ va able than silver; jfL ^ -S ^ jSt ^^ weyr^

yu tsze she chay. it has never been worse than at LU<- present time. Instances of \& kwo> are ^k ^?- ^ 3£ joo haou kwo g better than myself; or with

jfc yu> as fy *j& ^jft ^ ,fc j oo haou kwo yu gno, the same;. ;]>yg j&. ^jjL sea^u kwo yu e, less than ananty

* S 3r&1&\ It * * 4> $1 -^ J 3-

ke tfli hing hwo he ta kwo, hwo he seaoa kwo yu keun tsze, his virtuous actions are more or less than those of the superior man ; ^ ^ *& ]&, \£ {ghwan yaou haon kwo chay ko, he wants it still better than this. It is also occasionally followed by ifc £ yu shin, as ^ ^T -& i $& 1& £ ke wang hing kwo yue yu shir?, his worthless conduct is still more outrageous; or preceded by ^ mo5 as ^ jA/ i£ ^ jfc X kaoo san mokwoyu ilieen. iliere are no a ills higher tban the heavens '> $ &, £ 3f P^ twx> p>v;in iseer, not more than half a year; ^g -^ ^ /^cbe shth kwo .j in. wiser than the generality of men.

9. ^ Yu^ better, is often used to designate the com- parative degree ; as jH ^ yu nan, more difficult ; -jfa ^ jj£ *$L hang chuen yu kwae, he sailed faster ; ^ ^f 1$ ^ yu }"u ^ie11 y^n? ^e^r &an boasting : it is* also used withjfiRZ Ma, .after it ; as ^r ^ ^S Jg yu kea seay yip, Btill more dissolute: and riot imfrequemtly repeated, HS ^ i & $r ^ry^w sin yu yu, still more sorrowful, ot ^iterated in the following manner ; as ^ *|fc jfe $ y* - hwae yu e, the -quicker *-hfe easier ; ^ X<|r-i|Tu kew yu

CHAP. W, COMI*A3AtIVK. 41

nan, the longei th

^ ^ 3L yii teia y u tlmnar, t?ri» y» pfth ciie, the the effort and exertion, the le^s Ae chance of attaining the object: ft yew, sometimes oct*;-T% as ;& if >j& Vhofcwae, still more strange; ffe g j£ ^ y« * yew shen, his fe»peeeh was still mor« .complete; 4^ "is JjL •3- £ fa S ^ '-tfe wejook%w)f r^echeyewsfcing chay yay, there is fcotkmg like tfe Confaeiu fallness, Ifi this sense, on acceuot of the of the s^nnd, $jt yu, is now and then iised; we meet wiih^f yih;a§ £ ^^ih shinv more: exteasiTely; ^ yfe shen, more exc'dlent; ^ ^ :; ife A i^ ^ |g k'heu shing yihyuen urh jib mwan, fee jyuvr^ycwi sepa- rate yourself iro^.; the sages, the m<^$ ^ou *nU b*f purfed up. ^ YuS* is also used in this mim*1 1\ «s ^' ^- yut haou. better j ^ |% ^f ^ yu^ twig jufe t»i»9 the he prospers the more he gives. It has also $!r f&, as a fix; as M & iS- yug fi haou^ much better; ^^ 31 yih fS haou leaou, still better* - ^. || fi ylti ft £& meen, still more respectable. J^-^r Shing yn, is afeo usedforr/tdr^/as J^ ^ ^| jfe W 1^ JiiS shing yu pug kwang pih pei, £he light of the mdo» is a hundred times brighter than that of the fire*flyv So also, but seldom, jt yew. as lit Xj^-tsze yew haou, this is Better.

10. To conij.are whole senteBces^ tiing, is used; as .If. ft >p ^ f' « ning sze pCth k'hopei ies it i? better to die tihan to deny one's principles;^ ir ^: ^ ^ If ^ K, ningk'ho show pin, pfthb'ho kow tseu, it is better to atifler poverty, than to purloin; jg£ $£ £ ^ & 5jf 1fe"lc,.yu ke cliay yay, nine keen, in ceremonies, it is better to be economical^ than pr<>" feBe;f Jf flt * ^ ^ T .« * -fc ning fc'ho siti ke yew, puh k'hp sin ke woo* it is better to believe IB its existence, than to believe in its non-ex'Stence.

• II. >2 Jo. ./, is often used in comparisons, in various ways; as ffi i9 ^ Jtu vl 1H. ^ na ko pah joo chay ko haou, that is not so go*Ki as this; 53 ^ ^ ^ 3^ pa p8h joo hoo maag, ilie leopard is not so ferocious a<- x yib

CHAP. n.

y^i. j*» to if the water became still deeper, the iks i -still «crtlpp—* ^ Yih> is no v* and then used fanwre. «B i*i f: J[ Ife -#^JzL ^ $r joo seu€ yih Jbeaou,joQ:heii§yih%uQg, wtuterfhan SBOW, and red- der .than IMood; ;£ -*5 3$ $& puhjoo Vhin Jaou. no- iMng Kke diligent eSbtt: in this case it is used syno- nymously with ^£ 16, which is often preceded by the negative partible j| mo; as^ ^ 1f Jt .-»'& jo sxe$ there is nothing better than to die together. teiiees of the latter description are of frequent yence;(see also the 4*egative particles,) as ^ jfc riio tsze yew shin, nothing" exceeding this, or -this: Jt A £ 3& ^m&tachekung, no greater merits- J^ 3$ Jfr ^ {^HjoopuhLwang, we !rad better not go; '* * 2t « T- :» ^ -H yu ke che taou, grift joo' piih taou, it is better not to come at all, than to come late, 12. Of tne various ways m which our word more is expressed, notice the following:^ ^ ^ tosanfun, tliree parts more; -f- $ -^ &hih to rieen, more than ten years; t & ^ ^iih lae neen, ten years -n>ore; ^ — X kaou yih clrih, hi|hei one covid; ^§L *-* if" twan yih tsun,. shorter one inch; ^ T7 ^ j^ pub hea wan Kin, not less than ten -thousand taels; -f % ^r A shthyew yti jjn, more than ten men; -g- ^ ffe A pb yew^yu jiu, mi>re thai* one hundred men. The comparator is also occastcaaally iudit;ate3 :by an interrogative pronoun; as 3t i ^L ^ seen sftng shiih heen, who is wi«er than you, Sir. As comparafees, the following phrases may be cited: .Jt J^ 7 |&.:yu0i> shing peih pe, a hundj^ times &*>re distant If ^ ^ •3T* - ^L I ^ >f - *t aE.twy teeih tih yew shan yih pwim kamr, yew hae yih pwan sbia, crimes ac« curaulated as tigh asmountams, and as deep as seas 2/L Hwang, frequently occurs to denote, how much stored as >JL ^f p .^ hwang chmig two hoo, how much more tbe central empire ? £ JL -3> U :'}5 >JL ^ A ^ 9L J^ % ^ ^t'been tseaypuh wei, urhyu jia fcoo, hwang yu kwei hoo, heaven is not adverse, how much less men, and still less^spirits^ $i Shin, is used iJMhe 9&c& §>enset but less frequsstly; as

CHAJP, U, 'SUPERLATIVE 43

shin tszeyewteae, how much more -he: who has talents? $1 H shin yu£, how much mare it may be saidf Ttte reader mil easily infer from what has been said the richness of the Chinese language in this particular* and an attentive reading of the above paragraphs, will enable him to ..comprehend the great variety of ways by which the comparative is expressed.

13. The Chinese have maBy words Jike oof mr^

^ tsuy, siring shor^&t ts^g, has, and J| tsin, some of wnich ais placed .befbre the adjectives^ and some after 1hem» Thus J. $ ehe sirii>g^ extremely sacred^ ^ i? ieih haou, very good; ^ Jf ^ ;^ show J3^ keih e, very much disgraced: Jf ^i 6 t^yung ttiing e keihy^ery brave; ^ # ^ S teaou fe'hoofeeUi shins he experienced intenae aufierijig; ^ ^ teay she tremely excellent; ^ ^ 4fc H. ^. cietib yay e eeedingly virtuous^ |f ^ J •& Sm:die,<3ia ya respectful ;^ ^15. M .gae Vjissg die

ffyp8ififiil> ^ fi ^ ^hea^fl^cbe keib,he joyed great hi^pmess; ^. ^ tsujr lo, ^ery much ^ ^ jf ^uy kwan km yaou» d" thd h%best ance; fa 'fa tsuy .seen, the fhsfc ^. H ^ '•— tsuy wef t« yihf the yery first; SRrJIt^ j& hing seas^tsuy feeih, an exceedingly flourishiag condition; ]k ~vb & ^ ^ fi tsuy kaou cfee yew luh eh'hih, the highest is five covids; ^ jt; shin s&e, very ri^it; ^ if shin: haou, very ..good; # ^g ^ ^Lpfife ining che shin, very dark; ^T ^ S ^ Vho-gae shin e, very ami- able; £ Si »8 S ^ Wr ^ tsung ming shin puh shin^ his intelligence is^uite iitjsurpassabfe; H fe ^ 3& w** sSralim.kfih> extremely bettutifal. Jssteaot of ^ shin% 31 shin$ ig sometimes used, from the resent blanceofsoundzas JE_ f£ sliiuchung, very important- ^ siiin wei klio liSn, very detestable; 8^ 4 ytngj very

44 OTraUATnra CHAP.

tsin yu* me first. The examples of /£ shoo, are ^ ^ shoe to, veiy many; jji JS- shooe, very extraordinary: ~ shooweihwS yih, very dissimilar;^,

shoo

seo tswsg, very neglectful; the latter instances are of frequent occurrence in edicts. — ^ Ifth tse£, occur*? less frequently, and then generally in company with £ rher or§L k'hae; asf^L ^ ^ Hf kliae tseg heaou *y\i, Very digtinct orders. In edicts we skc find ^ tsung, H- ke, and^ s&n> u§eA to exp^ss the superlative de* gree: thus ^i If % ^ tsung chujig kew pan, ver/ severely frosecuted ; ^' ff k;*yrt:, ^ery . sirict;Jf#|iy| «li5 le sin yen, the new laws are very rigorous, ^ft. H^n, is iweii in roaversation ; as 4V ^|- ^l^ng tih ban, V.TV ; :^ ^f| ^ haou lib h&n, ver) giH'd. is its *v*d Ji uin. is occasionally used, on account of the similar^ ^T of sound

1 1,, There are various other modes of expressing the superlative degree, as £ fhae; thus & % tTiae tof too inuch;iB} JL ^i 7^ ho t'hae woo le, how very mde \ $r Iff JL ^8 woo tsin§ t?has shin, very unkind; ,^S '- ^T •'*< & tlh hing t'hae two, very virtuous, A Ta, is now and then used in the same manner; as;g fc.-fr m yew ta fun peg, or Jt J, H.ta.pfib scang t'huiig, very different, ^ — Te occurs, as ^ — ^ ts yih nieaon, very Ssc^llent 7ft ting, ss J| iJ- ting haou, very good; also Jt as X ^- shanghaou, very good; or J~ — ^ shacg yih%t^ng haou. good in the highest degree; ^ jj^ ^ $*- tih 'she piih haou, very bad.

15.. ^L i^eang5 is likewise used, b^t auly ia a few install c^s; as ft j&. lea-ng k^w, fer a coafflaernhbe l«ang to, at good mBrsy« Ifeiis also 1^ heu kew, very long: or^ % heu to, ^? heu shaou, very few, $fr Haoa, is in the same masmer; j^ j^F 5L isaou kew, a goo<| while; and more frequently fc cenve^ation; as if Jfc ptth, and less frequently jfr J!t. haoii snufa: ifauft -I ha«m p6b ping gaw3 very peaceful; pub bo mab, esceediugh

CHAJP, II. SUpttajUATlVS* 45

The idea of the superlative is afco .eiqi&essed by the re- petition of the adjective; as j| Tl '.kaw> kao»V very high ; P3 3$ ifiing raing, very bright: or by a«Jdi»% some noun that possesses the quality indicated by the /adjee* live ia the highest degree: as A H t'heea haoii, as high asheavea^ very high; ^ J§L-yen shin, as deep as the abyss, very deep;^, ^ ^ die sae seufij paper that ith snow, very white,

. life Tsen&. is very often used before the adjee*.

to denote the superlative degsee; as $& ^; tseu^ nxeaou, very esceiieat; |g li tseui mei. extreTaely beautiful; ^ H^ piih ahmg. and .^ l§ puh kT7Q, the. forraer put generally belore, a^d tbe latter after the ai jecthe3 are likewise of frequent occurrence; as ^ ^ ^ $$~ fung shiog p^ih shing, insurpassaidy abundant^ X ^ »T H& Hk. j^n P^h feTio shing soo, an innumer- able host; ffe ^ \fi. j^ puh kwo, very hot; or in a «oi£ structioo like the foUowing; >ft. il $ \& ^ J^ kwaesomokwo yuts^e, msutpassably swift; ^ § ^ ^ %jf~ chow g6 shin piih shing, desperately wicfeeA ^ M6- is also used in the same manner; as $ ^ ^ 5^ mo tache kung, the highest degree of meiit; ^t "R. M ..^ J^ ^ S &e kan tan mo tsze wei shin, flap* teg courage not to be surpassed; or a phrase like the following may be formed; as & $L t * VI "9T ^ ^ kekwanleang wooek*hokea e, or ^.^r^T ^x woo so k'ho kea, such generosity is not to be ex- ceeded; ^ M * » ^. ^ jfc kwae kwo woo e fuh keache, excessively perverse; or the .following J| jjt ||» % ^ .]Jfc tsan neo woo joo yu tsze, insurpns^bly •cruel; ^^.41-^ ^f 3* %- ke hvyanheTro: r ;puh keikhisjoy wa« uabounded ; so also i& cony^r^aJipn, 4^ ^ Mr T J?> ^ he hwan ieih kaou p6h "fib, very joyful

17. Before closing this suTa^ect,. we may o%fiserve, that the numerals ^ w&3, ^ tseen^ v^ f&h, and Hf* efeiE, are often used to deu^te the superlative degree; tbe tits* »£id last m»st fre^iiently; as j| 'i?- wan

ly good: f shili, joined with "?

46 TOftSCRfAl. FROiromr €HAF,

also used to shew the gradation of epitfaets; as

!$e Jim fiaou, somewhat gorwlr 3t '-^ ^ wo® fun haott,

tojctably good, t ^ ^f shih ftin haou, veiy good.

These are still a few phrases that in some rare ia* stances express the .highest degree: as ^ 4t chaou Ju cife leJJt, J -Jg dMV

ch*bfih cho0 luy,j^ ^g sae kwo, 0. ^*ae sliing^ att of which denote any thing above the COIKTHOU: so also tsuy kwei, Tery sinful, H |^ go kwei, mcst -tf- kae she, the most ennnontiu the age,

CKAPTEft III

THE PEB80KAL

1. W'E may here premise, as <i general remark, that peref3nai pronoun, when put befoie the sub^tan- !+ er whenever it is followed by ^ cbe, or 6^ teih, the genitive particles, becomes possessive; as ^ ia

gt*0 kwo, our country; -§: ^ jg ^ ffBo teih p^ng yew* my friend; $L & ^ 3jj& joo che tso wei3 your ac» tio^is. The saGie particles also that form the plural of Ii03as, are employed in the declension of pronouns:- viz. fifing, ;$l pei^fS. mutt5 ^ tsaou, and -fir tse; (the first and third ^hy Tar the most frequent:) as $ ^gnot^ngj > Jg| ^ .rotm. you. So also 4V S& ffi ?Q^ ieang *i>ofef ?£ jj gnoleti; we all of tis; ^ ^ joa all yfe' ^cefluas. •2, The -{^-SBOURS .of the Stst peracri art

^»f y«*l^-:'y^ andvV -^.

and sometime* >|y lbvv are -ya^d, ^

CSA*. .lit. f>£n803?A£ PftQiWW, 4

3. The Chinese verbs often imply the pronoun, e IB the Gxeek and Latin languages; thus B yue, he s~ii,

^" k'hat), you see, I see, or he sees. ^Hiee there is BO inflection is the Chinese, at* in $be languages, to indicate the person, it .must be found out by the.context Nothing is so repulsive to the Chinese ea?. and the genius of the language, as the frequent repe tition of the personal pronouns. The pessessive is likewise, in most instances, where our language TC* quires it, omitted; an3 only where a stress is laid tzpou the word, it is at all employed.

4. Instead of using 4Jie personal pronouns, the Chi* neseadopi various modes of avoiding it, of which w£ shall enumerate the priacipal, whilst we refer the rea- der for .the remainder to the Chapter oa the epistdar^ style.

5. For the first person, either the same is sobstt* tuted, or the pronoun dispensed with; bj repeating subject: thus ^ #: °f| 1j$ Jfc ^ Rwo wo.o

tsze sze,I (Kwo) have iio ability &r managing thi^ af- fair ; *h $ & & A t f & m * m & M

wae shang foo ta jin -tae tseen, fuh ke chuy -fcoo pun «hang, (lij the foreign merchant, repair to the triJjunal of Your iiKcellcney, and htanbly ask that you will con- descend tD look upon (me} the nierehant. In describ- ing one'^ own office or profession, the term iir^imating the tjame very often beats the prefix Jt pin; thus-gover* nors in their edicts never .use the personal pronoun, but, in speaking of themselves, put JL pun, before their title: as fc. ^ ^ pun poo tang, I, the 'Governor.; ^ ^ ^ pun kwan poo, I, the BopjH>; ^ W HULU lieen, L the district Magistrate; ^ J^ pun ching, I, the assis- 'taut Magistrate; so that in a Document of some * leagth, where we should employ the ^onoui), perhaps 40 times, in Chinese it would not CCCUT ^once.

6. There are, moreover, some ccBveafiorial Ibi'mg, by which persons designate themselves. The most common is j£ mov;, such an one, and % yo, the stupid

-one, for I Tfea Emperor iises JS1 ehia; tings, and •pri&ces, !$* /v kwa jiu. S^-Xkoa jia. -^ ^A .5^

jife }in, and r >J;» <?- yu seaci*. tss&e; which te?m* &re- perf*apB employed, in an greeted tone of humility, or to mitigate the power of their sovereign sway, by the most humble designations. A minister speaking to bis mas- ter calls himself )£ cfei» : a Mantel wstatesman3c noo,, &iteve; servants use >i» &§ seaou telh^fjtpo, and inferior officers, *£ T> ehe h£a. In common parlance between equals, 1 is expressed by $t i wan b&ng, and we by #& 3£ wan pei; so also ^ te, I; andl^te pei, we. The people in writing to their superiors call themselves W- A tsuyjin, sinners; (which is also used in addresses to the l)eity;) and^e, arits; scholars and unlearned persons uee |^ 4 heo s^ngr or P3 i iiaiiii sSng:. A tifoman speaking to her husband, calls herseiiVfe tst;ci, eoncabine, or ^>f ^ pe tse^, handmaid: a son address- ing his father denominates himself ^ *% piih seaou,y deg€neratey or >)» jiL seaouurh, the little boy; adaugh- ter uses ij* 3< seaou nytt, the little ^irl ; and an old man, $t A laoufoo, the old fellow. Thus there are for every rank in life, degradbg terms for expressing the first personal pronoun; asm most oriental languages. 7, The same rule applies to the possessive; thus for my father, brother, &c. the Chinese say & 3L kea foo, the father of our family; or •. £ ^. foo ts'hin, my Beloved father; ^ JL k^ heung, the elder brother of •JUT household; and ^ ^ shay te, the younger brother in our cottage. A husband referring to his wife would say & A nuy JIB, the person witliin; 1^ 'Jr nuy ->h.ih8 the one at home: jjj^j& tse^ fang, the vulgar one in theehamT>cr; -•*$ 0$ tih foo^ ihe lonely woman; 4*? $1 ehue kin^, llie d:;rl thorn: & ^ san tse, my clownish wite: aod ^ l!$ tseew nuy, the mean? person within. For my jrelntlon, a man would say % ^ shay ts'hiii^ the cot* tage ronnection; and for ir?y son ^ & keuen tsze, the puppy; for my family, jfl $L ban kea. the cold house* !k>l<];!W my house, $ji ^ ban shay, 'the chilly cottage; and for my servant, fr ^ seaou keae, the little $oy* The r^Gc t common adjectives used for the gurtscses r,t* self depreciation are| tseea, base;pe, vile-;

" as

CHAP. III. PEKSONAt PRONOUNS. 43

mean surname; ^ || pa kwo, our vile country; ^ ~fc shay hea, myjow cottage. These humiliating forms 0£ expression are so interwoven with the Chinese language, that the omission of them, and the substitution of the simple pronouns, would he very offensive against the taste of this extraordinary people,

8. The second personal pronouns are y$r joo, ^ nth* and in conversation^ ne ; Jt nyu, is occasionally used &ri$t joo> and^Jfene, ferine; on account of the simi- larity of sound. In ancient books we find occasionally 75 fiae?J& j&, and-jiflljoo, for the second personal pro- noun. Thus 7$ -£ J§ jg£ zmefoo nae tsoo, your father and grand-father; Jl J$ )fr too nae sin, examine your heart The remarks we have made above on the first, apply also to the second personal pronoun.

9. >. As in the induce of the first person, there are conventional terms used as substitutes for the setfosd personal pronoun. Thus towards inferiors the name is BOW and then used: equals aye addressed by ^ JL te fe^ung, /brother; or^b |L seen sSng, teacher ;^g ^ seang kimg, Sir; fc $± jin heufig* benevolent brcther; & )L Jaouheutig, venerable brother;^ JjS& tsun kea, Sir:^ J: keashacg, ditto;^ ^ heungchsog, elder brother :g ^ a ko/ brother;^ virbenng taev or & ^u tae beucg, e&alted brother: and to a lady ^ ^£.a tseay, sister. All these ^erds infer the eminence or ex- cellence of the person addressed, but are used in com- mon conversation in the same way as our ytm. If a per- son have an? official rank, that is then tneatroiied.

10. As honourable expressions towards superiors, we may-^einaA thefollowiBg:^ A te jm, % k~ A laou ta jra^jfe J^ jfc laou tafoo. whieh are used either to venerable pei-sons, or people in high rank; as vener- able Sir ! or your Excellency ! To teacbers, or ffentle- men are applied ^t 4 seeas&ng, teacher; >g % i iaou seen sang, venerable teacher:^ JL ^ laoa tae tat, venerable superior; j^j£ ^ i tat lao^ seen s^ng: great and venerable teacher; or^ ^l?jti sze, venerable instructor. Spiritual guides are addressed as ^ 3c shin foo, spiritual fatbei. rlo men MI

50 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CHAP. III.

or people who have great capital at their command, they use^fe ^ laou teay, venerable father; jL ^fjr tn yay, great Sirei^ ^ laoa yay, venerable Sire! jL % 3jjr ta laou yay, great and venerable Sire ! the latter is addressed almost exclusively to Mandarins of high rank, while to persons high in the military service, JL ^ tae sze, great general, is used. The Emperor is addressed by H J| ^ wan suy yay, the sire of ten thousand years ;|| i shing choo, the august lord; 7§? T pe h£a, Your Majesty ; JL |t ^ ta hwang te; the great Emperor; H Jt hwang s&uig, his Imperial Eminence, and similar titles : in letters a variety of other expressions are adopted, of which we shall speak here- after. We may just remark, however, that 251 every rank of life, there are certain expression to convey an idea of the esteem in which one holds the person addressed, Thus Coufucius called his disciples Jj> ^- seaou tsze, little children ; or d ^ ^ urh san tsze, my fcwo or three lads; while they, an the other hami* called him, ^r -J- woo tsze, our sage; or simply^ ts^e, sage! There are a variety of other words principally combined with ^ fan, a pattern, used for you, in highly flowery language, as 3t fi, kwang fan, the bright pattern; £ f| tae fan, exalted pattern; J| ^ yen fan, strict pattern; and ^ |i| ioo fan, urgent pattern. ^ Yen, counte- nance, seems likewise to be occasionally applied thus: as *P l| tae yen, your exalted countenance;^^ e yen, your proper demean our; andX ^ heung yen, niy brother's countenance. So also ^ tae, and u tae, in various wsytf; asj^ § ^ laou tac tae, venerable \Sir? *pf 0} tae foo, your honoured name; -£? ^ tae kea, eminent Sir; •& ^ tae ting, an epithet applied to the ihree highest officers in the state; and a great number of Other expressions. Several persons are addressd by Jr»J 'Jjt |e£ wei, gentlemen! instead of f§ <^ urh tang, you.

11. One of the most common words used instead of the possessive pronoun of the second person is 4^ ling, honourable; as ^ )L ling 'heung, your honourable brother; 4" ^f' Inig tsun, ys^ur honoured father; -

CHAP, III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. §1

ling tang, your respected mothei ; 4^ |p ling laag, your honourable son ; ^r -|£ ling gae, your excellent daugh- ter; likewise called nf & tseen kin, your treasure; so also ^ Jt ling .^hing, your good wife; ^ ifl ling chung, your favoured concubine. In the same sense ^ &wei> nohte; and 'I? tsun, honourable, are also used: as jff Hj kwei kwo, your noble country ;~^| J| kwei k&n<r, your noble age ; ^ %* tsun ming, your honour- ableiiame;^^ fang ming, your fragrant appellation. A few terms less used are Us kaou, high; i shtn)g^ ex- alted; and^f! shing,lull: as ^3^ kaou sing, your ele- vated surname; jt ^ shang loo, your exalted house, §? ^ shing pang, your prasperous coustry, T he rea- der will not fail to remark, that all these adulatory ex* pressions are jiist the opposite of what is in use for the first personal pronoun, where every epithet is employed that caA convey the id^a of inferiority: so much for Chinese politeness. ;

12. The most 'common word foi Uie *hird pei^om»j pronoun in literary composition is Jt ke, he: or Jt A ke jia, that man; which is used in all cases, and stand* for he, she, it, they, them, his, her, its, and theirs ; with- out the addition of the particles that convey the idea of the plural Thus Jj£ )9f % ke so wei, that which he^ does; Ji |fc ^f ^ wei ke so bw6, was led astray by him;jf: "^ ke yen, his of he* words ;^ 3f ke chung, in the inidst of it. In conversation ^ t'ha, is employed; while the plural is formed by the addition of #5 mun. ^Pe, that person, is more literary, and is likewise used like j£ ke, but of less frequent occurrence : f^ e, he, may be found now and then, and is turned into the plural by the addition of ^ t£ng; as f^ 3£ e tS«g, they; this word occurs frequently in legal papers and ^edicts* but not elsewhere : the constant use of it in our transla- tion of the BiWe is unsuitable : ;# nae, occurs in ancient books: as 75 Jfe'jffc T 3t i^ nae tseu hwuy tea waa woo, he assembled the «jvil and military authorities under his banners. There are also two local words foj: the third personal pronoun: viz. *& keu. cud- 31 1^

. £2 RECIPROCAL PRO^OU^S. CHAP. IIL

eu nung. Otherwise the nouns are put, rs # Q nyu ,$he said; ^ ft po ts65 the servant did it, \ 3. For the oblique cases >/T che, meaning him, , it, or them, is- the most frequent; as ^J ^ ta che, heat him, her, it, &.C. jffe >j£. ^ keu cfeuh die, drive Item away. In ancient hooks we find a possessive :v>ttnj^keu^, which is exclusively used for this ase: as ^ JpL ^ I^Jfc, ffc chang keu£ tih, paou |eu£ wei, he who preserves his virtue, maintains his throne. Otherwise^ tsiE, own, and |t ke, his, are far wore frequent. It Tsze, may occasionally stand for he, or she; aiid d% she, for it; as ^ X JK ^ seaou jin fan she, the inferior man reverses it. In a construction like ^ |f| ^ foo tub chay, he who reads, ^ foo, iDight he thou ht to stand for the third personal pro- noun, but more 'of this under the relative.

As a general rule we have remarked, that the third nnal pronoun is less in use than any of the others, and that the na me or noun often 'replaces it The language heing devmd of grammatical rules, as we understand them, nmch obscurity is thus avoided.

14, The reciprocal pixmou&s are H$ tsae, £ ke, fi & teze fee, g |^tsze kea, ft jf- tsse shii),j^ ^ pun shinj§ kung, J| shin, and^tsin. These are joined with the persaual prooouns; as^c ^ 2*- gno ts^e ke,l myself; & j> ke tso, he himself did it; ^ ^ tsin lae, he himself came ; & ^ 3k P^a she gno, or ie gno pun shin, it is I rayself; ^ ^c teze kea woo t&een^ bt htriiseli bas got no money; ts?;e hae tsze ke, %e injured himself; tsse mwan tsae tsuh, -self-sufficient, ^ wet t'heen tsze, being himself Emperor; foo tsin kung k^ng, my father himself Jghefl; ^ ^ J^ ^ tsze shit? puh tung, he himself DT move; ig d ^ ^ ^ tezeke wooleang mows ; jeKes ha^a uo feasible plan; ^ Ijr.t&m pedh, an

CHAF. ill. S>E^IO»STKA^JVE PRONOUNS, 53

autograph ;^$i ^ tsin show* bis owaa hand, ID opposition to that of aiiOtber;^ J^tsin yu, self praise; H C ? J$ kungjsiri pae woo, be himself bowed and dancedy j}§ 3§j|; 3£ ^' kung tsin ke tsze, he di$ the work himself; 3$ $3 3& j? gfl° kung woo teih, 1 myself have no strength ; ^ J|| wei kung, my trifling body, is an Tmirible expression for myself; ;fl| H — J^- tub tsxe $u* jin, I myself alone; |J ^ tsge .sbe^: self-righteous; }g- ^ k& fcsge, each one himself £>ffe ^ pe tsge, others together with fmeVself;-££ — ^ >^ ^ '!^ jiayihke cbe gae tsang, to follow oneis own partiality or passions; ^ ^ i r!S ^ & ^ A che yew ke, urb pahche yew jin, to advert merely to one's ownself and not to advert to others: i. e. selfish. The above will eluci* date the manner in which the reciprocal pronoun is ap- plied. Whenever there is no stress upon the personal pronoun, it is omitted.

15, The term used to express mutually is-tS seang, with its compounds 5 3$ boo seang, fj ^| tsze seang, $3| ^| te seang, ;$ j^ seang ying, ^g ^ seang tuy, %Q & seang e,^ || seang ehing,^ £. seang boo, together with $C P^» ^L ^ze$ and ^j kin; ag ^@ ^f seang haou, on mutual good terms ;jt $S %& ^ hoo seang ho rniih, mutual harmony; >|i. ^ ^g Using tsing seang y ing, dispositioiis corresponding to each other; ^ -^ jfg |jj fookwei seang tuy5 riches and ho- nouis which correspond to each other; 5$^ ^ ^ ^C >^ pe tsze hoo e chang, this and that man depend on each other ;^.)Jt ^" ^ pe^tsze yew tsuy, there are faults oa both sides; g Jj_ tsze hoo, mutual regard; ~~ %8 )fy ^ M M jr|» ' tscl kill yew seang kwan, there exists oa the wole a mutual relationship.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

!6c Hie demonstrative pronouns are Jfc tsze,^p sze5

^tiiize,^ she,^ chay, ^ foo, andjft ke, for, this,

the latter also for fM/rwith^S" dhay^ pes and>SfJ na,

for ffeil. These; ate dwnys put before the nouu, except

54 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CHAP. HI.

3ji chay, which is strictly speaking * relative pronoun. Dfc T.8«e, and <dt chay, haw frequepljy the sign oithe plural afct^hed. The following examples may illas- trate their use.

17, j& lit ^ -trTsze cbuftg wang hing, this sort of disreputable conduct; jit ^ .f> ^ ia/e tang go t'hoo, this kind of worthless fellows; Jfc 2: ff .& tsze ehe wei yay, *his is what wi<s srm! ; ^ "»[ jt wang; yew tsze, I hope for ibis: ^1* Jfc yu tsze^ih fchis place; Jfe ^ tsze how, from this time; jgjj 4% s^e how, after this time :i& $L joo tsze, thus;^ sze, is rather sparingly used; it occurs in the phrases $ft ffa sze she, at this time; /£ j&f* ffi j|[ tsae sze low shih, in this mean "house; ^ $f 3T Ht IS: He sze che weiyu, is not this what was said ? ^" ftf Tg" -ftf ho sze wei sze, why trans- gress in this instance ; JC jfe JtP ^r t'haeyojoo sze, it is in general thus; $Lff yv flf Pe h° ji^ sze, whdi' man is this. $£ Tsze, is not exclusively used as a de* mott$tr&tivc7 bnt is sometimes taken to form adverbs; ^^ J|^ tsze lung, I have now received; i& ^ J| ^f* >f; H teze shih yu6 shih liih jih, now in the tenth tuonth, on, the 16th day; or ^ tsze, *§£^t§" tsze chay, is frequently used at the opening of a discourse, es- pecially in letters when the real contents are broached: '?* 0% kiu tsze, now; ^ *$& neen tsze, thinking about tbis;j{L "^ tsae tsze, here;^^| tsung tsze, from hence* ^ She, occurs in the following corabinaiions; as ^ %she she, this time: ^* ^-yu&ta. or J ^ yu she, thus; ^ H ^ $f t&ngsbech^sh^or ^ 4 -^

tyu she die she. at this thne} Jl A she jin, this niaa; •% yuug sV\e ose xkiii.;-^: jfc sh^ ^. on this ic' count ;J|^J|| tbe tefti, thea;J^ ^ she et therdbr^ ^ >i; joo she, thus; ^ -% tsze she^ and A .Jjr yu she, from hence ;^ ^ ^^ she so hau chay, it is this tuac he hates,

18. \|, ^ Chay sze, this Business ; 3, fSi ^/C chay !;rj jin, this man; (conversational) ^ ^ chay she, afc *ii>$ time; ^f ^ cfeay Ic, here; ^ ^|chay yar,g, in this manner; g^^ chay p wan, in this way; and ]l"^ chay S^g, these' ^ lie. otherwise the third personal pro-

CHAP. IIJ. RELATIVE PBOTCOUNS. 55

, is frequently used for the demonstrative, especi- ally in good writing: as^ A kejin, this, or that mun,

Jft $r kesze,this;jL ^ WJ^fke jo ho shing: yen, how can this be described in wo5ls;fj .£ & Jf Jfi urh ping rain ke yung, you soldiers and people are using this; ^ ^L ke yay, that night; jj^ ~p- £)* >£ ke shwuy ehe ohe, who can know this ijj; Chay, conveys our idea of the demonstrative, in all those eases where it is followed in our language by s relative; as those who, that which: thus))j| ^r^ shun woo ehay, those who obey me; ~ J§ ^ frf jfe 1jfc urh chay puh k'ho tih keen, these two things cannot be had together; ^

% M ' $(* J* %i Z~ gae woo chay, gno yih gae che, these wha love me, I also love them.

' 19. $L A Pe jin, that man; Jfc - ^ ffc— ^-pe yih she, tszis yih^he, that was onetime, this is another; # ^ tsae pe, in' that place ;^ ^/Cnajin, that man;

3p Bl" jH na she how, at that time; Jfj$ fg ^- na ko tszc, that ]joy;f(5 1® A ^^ fij St f$ na ko JIB puh she gno sM teih, it is net I who killed that inan.

As demonstratives might also be considered words of the folio wing class, H^ wei,$t wei, and ;itc v/ei, when combined with BJ" she: as^. w weishe, at that time; also<^ ^- kin neen, this year;^> ^ pun yue, thk month. In like manner ;% || yew choo, it is thus; and several others: but as they only convey these mean- ings in those particular instances, they cannot lay full claim to this name. The demonstrative is occasionally dispensed with in sentences like the following: as -^

W $ ^ Jjf Ju g^e gae yu chay, I love those who love me; ^J «^ *R ^ t§ A g^ hSn h&n woo teib jin, 1 hate those that hate me.

RELATIVE PttONOUNS.

20. These are only two, viz. $f so, and^ chay; but their use is so much varied, that it is necessary to give a number of examples in order to exhibit their full foiee aad meaning.

DO RELATIVE PRONOUNS. CHAP. 111.

21. Thus J$p so, m the following -sentence jfr jfa 5ft H- pelh yew so sze, lie must have something of which he thinks; $j |f fl H so wei full 16, that which is culled happiness and pleasure; jgf' ^ J|- ^j?f so yew ban keen, all those who are traiterous Chinese; % ffi it & *j$ woo so yaou che wuh. the thing which I -.want, ^ % ^ J$i /V so wei clifey pe jin,the man wholes it; j^ £ ft &&'& $T & she ¥ so e, kwan ke so yew, look to the motives by which he is guided, tibe principles from which he actstjjt _^f tfjjr, ke so yah, that which he desires; $f <lj ;i|f -M IfF so wei chay ho sze, what is it that he is doing? j|J ^ ^f 1% 18, ^" "chaouting so e lae chay, the man on whom the court depends; A Jif ^jin so han, that which men hate, or hateful to mankind. The word $f $0, is sometimes used with the passive construction, as In the following instances:^ -^ j3f ^ pet'hasohae, injured by him; ^ if A ^ ^, wei foojin sohwo, it was Ms wife that led him astrry ; or led astray by his wTife. it is often preceded by j& woo, not; or M ho, what; as $k 3ft ^ ^ woo so puh wei, he allows him- self to commit every thing; literally there is nothing that he does notvdo; -H- J^i >P tc ^00 so puh n£ng, there is nothing.tjiat he is unable to do; omnipotent; "H" $% 3\ 31 ho so puh che, what place Is tijere to which he does not go; ^g* ffi jfc ^ hoo so puh koo, whatis^here upon which he does not bestow attention ? o- where does he not look*? that is, he looks every where; or thus JL ^ $f ^ fan ke so yew. all that he has, or whatsoever he lias; jl j3f ^ ^ fan so mae mae, whatsoever he bought and sold; & ffi ^ ^ fan so keaou yew, all with whom he associates; j3f )5. so e, means the motive from which an action springs ; also therefore ; ^ ^ so t^ng, that which is suitable, one's doty. This pronoun never adopts"^ t^ng or any other plural particle. It may, however, be preceded by *& cfee, as in the following sentence; B ^ $% ~|J ^

^C* 2l ^f ££ ii^ow °^e so sung f®» s^ che so che, what is- recited by tbe ii>^.th is not always that which is known t\y the

CHAP. III. HKLATlVi: PRONOUNS, 57

22. The use of^- chay, is still more varied It oftfcn serves to form substantives for other words: as shen chay, the virtuous 1. e. lie who is virtuous-;

h£o ehay, the .student, i e. he who c-;tudJes; $ 4f £ & 4fc she heo yth chay che kwo. this is the studying of the Yih-king to excess:

, -4f A tfi ft x£ gae jin chayjinh&nggae ehey he who loves mentis always beloved by men;j& ^ .3^ j& "If xT 'J$T tsze shen wei ching chay che sbuh, this is the contrivance of those who govern well; so also in explanations and definitions: as & ^- 4|. ^ ^R shan ichay tseiiea .cheytiec, hills are the sources of fountains; X jfc ^ '1* "IT & tih chay ;jm ehe so tan^ i^ yay, virtue is thst which ought t^ b^ prmriecd by men If i-t refer (o something going boibre it i? pre- ceded !>y & yay: asr| & $3 sharig yay ch-HT, the a- bove merchanr. Phrases like the following occur fre- quently in the best writer.- ft« * ,# ,4f "M- ^ Kik & 4^ A it ^ ^ *- fooheao jin che che, shen sh&h jin che sze chay yay, (y consists in skilfoHy carry ing out people's design, rnd in appropriately recording their doings, (that is, a fihal child realises 'the intentions of his parents, and furnishes n continual comment upon their actions.) Mai^k also the following sentences: as & H ^ ^ ffi 7^ ^P U « j2T-'>fe min jih tseen shen, urh puh che wei che chay. the people daily advance in virtue, without know. ing that they do so'; £ ^ ££ j£ ^ ^ jl& % * ^ 4^ wei yew heo yang tsze, urh how kea chay yay\ tlr^re are no (femalts^who (first) learn to nurse children and afterwards marry ;•$& j£ .% ^ ^ ^- |f ^ Jfe joo tsze chay, tsae keih ke shin chay yay, thus calamity will affect his person; ^ ^ ^ ^L tih ch&y P^n 7ay» virtue is the main thing.

23. The relativ. is sometimes understood, in

which case ^L che, a^ 1 ^ teih are used. Thus ^ ^

^ ^ woo yew che-i* ih, the ink 1 have; 4? >fx 1^

"Ifc "SL ^'^f'*Tfc vg"0 puh sin t'ha shwo teih sin wan,

I do not .'believe uie news he tells:

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, CHAP.

gae dbfc nyu, the woman 1 love ; and sometimes the a- bove named particles are omitted: as^ ^ A .3t $£ we« yew qin keih t?foa there is none to equal him; ^~ 3£ dt k'han hoo keun szt% the soldiers who beheW the corpse.

24. The principal interrogative pronouns shwuy,jffe shuh, and t? ho; each of which is used in various ways, as may Be seen from the following ex- amples.

25. |pL |£ Shwuy kan, who dares ? H A shwuy jii>, what man ?^% ^ she sh wuyr who is it? ^ ^ ^ ^ nae teih shwuyho., to whom is it of consequence? ^ ^ ^ shwuy che tsze, whose son ^ M §

iea tsze, the son of whose family ? & $fl £, ~jfc tbjse wuh she shwuy teih, whose are these tilings? ^ ^ ^ shay gno ke shwuy, who would pass by me^? ~fjl 1& >§, she shwuy che kwo, whose fault is it? ^ ^ ^Spuh keih joo keih shwuy, if he does not give it you, to whom will he give it ?".Jt ^ iljk ^- ke chung shwuy haou, who amongst them is the hest; or in con- versation 1& IffijfjL H 7^. ^ t'ha mun le t'how shwuy haou, ditto. ^ "^ |jt puh lun shwuy, whosoever; ^ ^ ^ 13 woo wun sbway ho, whichsoever; ^ ^j S puh keu shwuy, ao matter who.

26. ft |t Shuh n^ng, who is able ? or £ ^ ^ ^J ke shub n^ng che, ditto. ^ *& ^ ^ we che shuh

she, we know not which is right ; ^ ^ ^ ;§ &shuh puh k5ho jin yay, what cannot be borne ^J^ ft ^- ^ >?: keun shuh yu put?, ^euh, ^ith whom would Your Majesty find a deficiency ? ft Jff f^ E ^ -shuh yi?er^ shuh che yay, what can he wish for that he does

obtain i$V fjf ^J ^ ^ ^L J^-kew nae hing- sken chay shuh shing, who is it that excels in virtue and patience*? ^f ^ ^ ^ ^ Ji ^L -& t'ho seaou shuh shin, k'ho-gae shub shin, can anything be

acuiycari aBythiirg be more lamentable ?

CHAP. III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

27. 13" $ Ho sze, what business ? $t it /*J ke kooho tsae, what is the cause? t*T ^ ^ ^f ht> yew yu gn-o tsae, what is that to me ^^U -f* "fc yu ho, what caii be dane for me ? ^? 5t £p ,"!%" ke nring ho, what can he do against fate ? ~Jfe 5- A, $?f joo thing jin ho, flow ean he rectify others? 1*T 'jH j£ ^ be tih che shwuy, what a falling off in virtue ! ^ ^ /^ 3jf sheborjin cliay, what man is that? jlc ^ ^f A H keaou hwan ho jin urh, to whom did you restore it? j|r H ^ 1^ j oo hwan hoping, what 8ickness have you

fot -? % % ^ S ^T ke yen chay wei ho, what were is words ?f^T vft ho kaon, how high? or what is the "height? or ^ ^ ^ kaou- ke to, or ^ ^ -f? k^,^ joo ho, how high is it? 3^ ^T "wei ho, -fa" ^ ho koOj fi ^ jin ho, all sigwi§r why ? fC jE ^P jfe ho joo tsse, how is it come to this extent'? f*j ^p ho joo, how is it? at the end of sentences, and ~$$ f?f joo hc^, bow ? ia what Titaoimn? at their beginning. ^ ^" ^ .Ife- Ho yew bo woo, who. has, and who -has uoi ? frj Jfl ho ch'hoo, what place? where ? T. It" ^ A pttb hxn ho jin? whosoever; ^ffc^ W A-^ peiehay ho jin sse, what is that man ? IP| ^ ^ ^ w> ^*n che yewf what n'eed of vexation ?

28. There are other words Which crccasiottally stand as adverhs, and at crfher times as interrogative pronouns Thus B^ chow, occurs in a verjt few mstan* ccs 'for vdvo^ as ^ Xfp l|^ Jft t89ie tseang chow e. whom will you depend o'a? 3£ j% shin mo, tar-ff ^ ahih mo, with ^ ^ ts&ng mo, or merely & shia, are of very frequent occurrence in conversation. (See the chapter on interrogative particieSv) Thus *ffc -ft j^_ shwoshin mo, what do y»u say ? $ ^ £l -fgj ^ Jf

t^ joo k%?m cbay iko ts^ng mo yang sho<a^ look at ;, and see what kind of hook it is;J^ 4lF jfe yew shin na», what difficulty is there? >£ T£ ^ ^ ^*^L •|t j^ puh 4rhung tih tTia shw6 ^hin "mo, I do not un- derstand what he says. j8JS ^ Na ko, occurs for nlwse ; as ^ 3f$ ^ ^f ^ ^" she na -k^ te^n show pei}%, writing is this? ^ j?f — >fg} A, »he na

60 DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. CHAP. III.

kojin, who is that^ ^ Ko,jL k'he, and ^ yen, are

occasional!', lis'j'i bistead of 19" ho.

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

29, They are ^ko,^-, mei, aM & — rhfih yih. The use of each of them will be beSt illustrated by ex- amples, Thus^r H ko kwo, every nation;^ "f" jji ^ ko yen ke che, let eaeh one speak his own opi- nion;^ fe ko sih,^f all shades, or descriptions ; ^- ^ kohang, every article; ^j A ^ ^ >$L ¥ ^an?jin ko yew pun sze, of those two, each one is endowed wiflk talent ;-§~ $T £ 'it ko yu ke tang, every one in his own clan; 3§r — A ko^yih jin, 6f each one man; ^~ A J^ JlL k6 jin ko keen, each has his own peculiar opinion ; ^r ^?r jit J$I k6 k6 cha pe^, differing from each other; jg- Ijffi & ^ k6 pan ko sze, every one managing1 his own business; %r ^ & $} ko hwan ko teih^ ]^t each one have his own; fr A %$ ifc-^ft ko jin too e ke,<each one adopted flie plan; g£ ^g ^ ^ suy searig ko ko, each one for himself; & ij v^ » ko tsze hwan chen, every one fought at random; single handed ;4*- 1-& ko keu5 each or all; ^ 4^ ko kung, all unitedly; -|r ^ ko eboo, every whete. So also ^ ^" chuh yih, each; ^ ^^ ® S$ 5«e yuh chuh chuh, he desired each one in particular; ^ 5 ^f H chuh jih so seu, what was wanted every Say; $5 *& chuh keen, every kind. In like Hisnaer we have 4|- A mei jin, every man;^ —+> ffi ^ triei yih keen sze. every affair;^ g| mei she, each time; ^ & mei mei, always;^ ^ ^ jlj^ met y&h s^ang how, I have frequently wished to wait upon you in person ; 4|- ^ ^ mei sze wan, he enquired about every matter.

30. Both is expressed in the following manner: ^ ^ A ^ J^ ^ ke urh jin" keae seay tsze, both of them are writing; $J f!§ |^ jfe m leang ko too j en ping, both of them have contracted a disease; $£ j?*} ^& ^g| i^-^J. i*ha num learig ko lingle, both of theta are ^brewd; ^ ^1 ® ^ urh kung yung sin, tb-}

CtfAP. Ill, INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 61

both exerted themselves;^ Jf£ jfjl 38. & hemig tc keen fen fa, both the elder and younger brother have transgressed the law; $? $L f£ 'jjjfL y leang wei shih fan leaou, or $j $L fit f£- /gt leang wei keu shih fan, or ^ 'fe /f5L.;S too shih fan leaou, you both have eaten, yfc 3% -§- ^f ^ j°° S110 k® yew che, we both have otir several intentions;^ 1* Jl ^ |S 3t 'ft ^ rauh tseang jru «teih tseang ping 1^6 sdang, both the car- penter and smith are at work at the box; 5c 5"{ ^ jg| foo tsze.vkeae taou, both father TIIK! sou are come.

31, JSither m&*ieither are expressed in the follow- ing manner: ^ -J- ^ 3^ ^ fp^ hwu tsze hwo nyu yew tsuyy either your son or daughter is guilty; ^ J^ i^ ^ ^- ^ pufe she joo tsew she t'ha, it is either you or he: or $ fa $? ^ ^ J°° tse^ Pe? if ^ot you than he; or J^C ^f jSfv^ ^r j°^ chung peih yew yih, between ysu, one -must he iaipKeated; ^ ^ ^ j^ ^C ^ ^ i hw£ she keaou sze hwo she e s&ng, he is either a teacher or physician; ^ ^ ^p X fg jg» ^ — urh pang she jinkeen peih yew yih, it must be either of the bystanders.

Neither is -formed by affixing the .negative- par- tide: as li fin ^ & jflf 1% J£ g. c?^y ko pub she na ko puh she, it is neither this noi thai; ^ $3 jjj[ & • *§* M Jm leang f he meen keae woo, he has neither money nor respectability;^ $fc ^ ^ pe tsze kiii fei, neither • the one nor the other; or JL ty $r chung woo yih, neitiier one of the two; ^ X ^l&angjin too woo kwo, neither of them is guilty: ffi -fH .?! *e leang ko piih she, 5t is neither cf theta; ^ t^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ t'ha iri?in ^ang ko too puh tuh? neither of them wept;^ d -g| %* ^ ^ ^f^ woo urh puh chay keae uuh tso, neither of us servants will do it

IJ*DES1NITE PRONOUNS.

32. We shall enumerate the principal characters ustd fori uleiinite pronouns, and the various modes in

thid ti-^5,4 of terms is expressed.

-•

62 !>N!>EEIN!TB PROKOI7NS. CHAP. III.

^ Mow,.$cRne body, such a one;^t J± mow jin» a certain perscm ; .^ 5f£ mow k'hih, a certain* strauger, or visitor;^ -®- ^ j^ Jaoumoo mow shey old mother So and so £ J~ *$ $fc~ Jjt J^ tsze seih yu mow hoo, should I be familiar with such an one., J^c Hwo, is of- ton u&ed in; the same manner: as ^ fcj hwc> yu£ a eer~ tain person lias said; fjf JL hwO jin, some body. -^ Yew, also occurs in the same sense: as $j J\^ yew jinr some body, or sotrre man; fe ^ A ^. ^fc ^rpeib yew Jin paou t'ha che, certainly some one has told him- ^ ^r -^ y.ew w«h keen, or % jfe yew wuh, some- tning; ^ ^ yew tsze, sometimes. So also ^ ^ § yew ke tsaDU, ^ ^. J§, yew ke peen, j^ >^ ftj she yew teihr $ ^ $fc hw6 yew she, ^ ^ ^ heu ke fan, ^ ^ 9? ^f y^w to shaou she, all mean sometimes.

r nf#tv< is expressed by^ -jgj ke ko, a fewf soo fin, several persons,* ^J >P ^A 7^w to jin, more or Jess ; ^. A ke jin, A few people ; ^ U §oojiihva few days; ^ ^ g pah soo jih, net many days; orjfi JJ piih jih, within a short time.

Several; i& thus expressed; % ^fc Yew soo> ^ere are several; || jg ke ko, several ;-jj- ^ B fs^B ke jih, 'j^veral d^ysago;^ ^ J| shangkechoo, wounded in &e%^eral places; ^ ^ ^ ^ yewT ke kwraewiih, he has several curiosities; ^ ^ ^ «*« ke fan, several times.

For none or nothing, me negative i<; employed: as J& A woo jin, no man, none; ^ 3l ^ ^- S? choo e puh yih eh'huh, none of the Barbarians came for- ward ; — '$$ ^ J^ ^ ^ yih ko yay rniih yew k heu, not one went away ; or •— ^rg J|L ^f ^ yih ko wei yew klieu, not<Hje of them went; ^ jfc Jfc, haou woodbib, nothing last;J| j: ^ ^ff J: shin shang muh tih cfewan, he had nothing on hit: body ;J£f J| ^ ^ too woo k'ho ieih, nothing to give; cjr ^- shay woo, jgg ^| «seu^ woo,|lr J^ keu woo, all mean nothing.

33. The Chinese have various mcwies of expressing our word same. The most {request is fil tunt?: as S] %a tur=g niing, the same name; S ^ tung aeei); -of the same age,;$) — Utjuug jih yatng, iir ^ — J?. yifc J>W»B, in the-s:in;

CHAP. III. INDEtJNi'FE PRONOUNS. 63

leang sin tungliaou won, both their mkidU have similar prejudices and predilections; — )is) yih tung, aH toge- ther;^ J^ s£ang lung, the same;i ]pj jth -H ta tung seaou c, Very much the same, and differing1 but little; p| $* ~- ^ tung sinyHi e, with one heart and mind; J§3 ^ %f A, tung taou teih j in, men of the same pursuits; jf, ^ ptih tung, not the same, different; -^ (5J kung tung, ?*11 together;^ ^} ho tung, together with, the same with ; {§J J3^ ^ ^ tung paou kung 300, born of the same womb, and sucking at the same breast; uterine brothers:^} $£ $ tniig-ehin seih, of the same couch and mat, bed fellows : Jl} $j£- tung leaou, afellov/ officer; J^J ^ tung tsung, of the same window, fellow students;^. ^ |^ ^ woo puh tung chay, throughout the same; ^ fjjj keaetung, or ^ |^ — * ^ keae tang yih jen,all the same.

There are other words expressing same^ of which we enumerate the most common: as < — yih, one>; — ^ yih yang, or — jjji yih pwan, after one manner; & ~- kwei yih, it comes to the same thing; Jf *— hwa^ yih, to draw one liue;^i — joo yih, as one; — jfj yih meen, at the same time;^ ffi keae jen, all the same; ^> Puk keae jen, universally the same; J^ ^ ta 1&S seang kin, generally, nearahouts ; ^ $ woo e e yay, no difference; || H woo e, ditto. yih ch6, one rut, or trace ; £p S — ^ joo ch'huh yih ch^, as if driving inone rut; ^ ^J >$t — ^ ^ t'ha f hung joo yih yang kaou, he is of the same height with you.

34. ForoMeror another the Chinese use^fha, 4W -pefe?j5 Kng, aiid^- e. rIMs -Jjfc, H t'haj'h, another day;>fS A w'hajin, anofher ra^n;^ X P^ ji», some one else; ^J i -fe ^ P&£ sang fha e, to form some other plan ; $ j$L ^ ^ pee woo t'ha sze, no other <J)ject;^j ^ # ~fc pee sin fang fS, devise s^me other means; ^ — *- jg t'ha yih ko, another.

So alsoj? ling: as ^ B Hng jih, etnofter day; % Jfe ling im, a separate dwelling; ^ ^ — fS she ling1 yih ko, there is besides another; ^ ^ ^-fi yia-tsocn, he has still got some other money; jlfc

64 COLLECTIVE PHOJSOUN-'. CHAP, III,

•ff1 |* tsze she Hrj keen bze. ibis is another business. The following expressions alseoceur-K- H e jib. ano-

ther day ; "F H ^a .1'k' ^ie ncx* -*ay; JJff ff- niii-ig neen, next year, or another year; X -% ^ ?£ yew yew faBg fa, thcie are still other means; ^ A & ^ Jffir E 7^ .jfe- k£ei1 jin cne shih joo fee che shtbu look upon another*? loss as one's own

COLLECTIVE PRONOUNS.

35, This is a very numerous class, of which we -may enumerate the following: jt &n, ail; -fS ./t tan fan, whosoever;^ ^ choo fan, all, % ^ ^ A fan kin cbe jin, all the in en of the present age; fl ^ &L ^ fan yew heue k'he, all \slio have Wood and breath, all mortals ;Jc /O ta fan, generally ;^ ;L f^ fan. for the most part; }t ^ fan yaou, the most important of the whole; jt, A, fan jin, every hody; jt 16 fantae, every mortal; jt J5f ^ fan so yew, all creatures: and simi- lar expressions.

•^ Chung, and^%tsung, express the same idea: as Ufa, ^ rhung sang, every living heing-^^chung lun, the opinion of all, orpuhlic opinion ;$ Jf+'jfc.'fii kwa puh teih chimg, the few cannot resist the many;-$i & chungto, a great many ;^. JJ chung yue, all said; — ^ yih tsung", all, thewhoie;^^| tsuog seu, above all necessary:^ ^ chung che, all of you;^ fifjj jgffij tse tse.yew chung han tiring, all of you listen.

ttf Choo. and ,^ shoo ai^ al^o employed: as>^| ^ shooluy, all kinds ^ ^ shoo to, many;^ ^ ohoi. min, all the people, the ^conimoR peqne:^ jjfa shoo kr. nearly, nearabouts;JSr ^ shu0i!co, almost:"^- ^ choo k ung. all you gentlemen ! pj| l|F choo sze. all affairs; ^jj ^ choo to. a great many;J| -^ shoo chung, the multitude;^ ^ choo tsze, all the philosophers, the whole school ;ffj ^ choo shwo, general opinion; |j| ^ choo kea. the \\hole tribe of philosophers; ^ ^ choo joo, the whole (acuity of scholars. ^ Keae, and^L kae. occur. ££(J are occ£i£io3:5!ly sy^o*

1

CHA?. nr. roLLE€Ttv^ PRONOJUNS. 65.

nyfhous: asjt ^ nyu keae* the women ail;$L *8T chungkeae, all;# X JL teae pun keih, all made quate;jf $ — |f nrh gno yh t'he, you and I arc one; ^. $c ^ f&t'hae tekeae jen, nearly all the same,; ^ ^ ^ i wan wuh keae siing, all things are gene rated;^ ^7 ^ |t l»ou yew keae tsae> both old and young arc present; — ^iVth kae' ail togf^er- •$£- '^|L >H vfe tsesng kae keu chtih, dri^e them ail out toge- ther; A Mk ta kae, in general, or on an average.

^? Too. occurs in this seruse; asA^^ Jin t<v- shwo, people all say; $ $$ fa $ gno too woo tsov, we i*re innocont; ^;^ ta too, in general.

'jfe Kt^Ai, bears the same sense: asl^ ^ keu ehe, t?3 right; £ £f- ^ -£~ foo moo Ireu tseuen, both father and mother are' well; $r ^ iR $- so w$i keu shen, all that he did was well; $. ^ ^ >^ keu tsun hoo Sin, he fcep& it all in hi« heart; ^ ^ keu k#5 each, every one; ^i9f^> ^ ^ ^t yew so sze keu puh show, t»f all thai he gave he received nothing So also ^»eu;as^4fc seukeaou, to teach all ;^ ^ seumei, to level all. In the sense of ail, ^r tseen, is used; as ^ ^g tseen seueo, they all chose; j; ^p Jt ^ ^| puh yueii tseen chay t'hing, he did not wish thai all should hear; j^ 0 tseen yufe,, all said. We meet with ,^ haa? likewise as a eollective; thus A $0 $ ^ yi» wuh ban heacg, rational arid irrational tribes all enjoyed it; $C ^ ^ ban tsetsftti. all were assembled;^; ^ bar c, all suitable: "^ ^ 4| ^ shang tan ksueti ym? all the merrhantR have contributed money.

Mark also the following phrases: ^ ^ tse lae, they come all together ; — ij^ ^ ^ yih tse keu i&, all is- sued forth tog'ethe? ; ^ '^ *£ ^ tse eh'huh tseg yihg-, they all went wt to oneet him ; ^ ^ tse shing, all vhh one roice;^ ^ -wei tee, all together ;|f ^ h6 iea, your whole family ; ^ ^ A bo jih jin, ail the people of the city. We may mention ^ kuog, in the saoie conoetitioa ; as.^ ^ kungcke, all of them knew, or gener* Hy known ^ ^ kuu^ ke, the whole number; ^ "^ i S Jk kuug e kwo ching, all unitedly ed aboui the gOFemment of the cou»try ;/

TO NUMERALS. CHAP, IV.

jin fehinituag* fun, men and spirits were ail exasperated, ||. 4^ toiuK: kung, or-£ $|_ kung tsung, aH toge her, - fte whole , >- -j£ ta kung. ditto, t^ ^' ho kung, all together; ^ 4^ kung kung. publicly together: £ $g W $LkTOg sear«g foo tsoo. they ait helped each other. A ^£.Ta kea, iiv oonversation, signifies all, every one, all of you: as;^ fa fa g $ jj£ takea ineen "meen ^gajag she, they all looked at each other. As a collective j^ seih, IB frequently used; asjfe ^ seih ken5 all; |g ^ seih twan, the whole were eut off; — ^} 1J£ & yjh ts4^ tsin seih, the whole number, all together: ^ % seih leih, with one's wfeele strength . ^ y tain teae, all; |5 /£* tsb sin, with she whole mind- 4- ^t tseuen fche whole number, all; — ^ yin ts«\ oy-^-^ — yih ping,— }^ yih t'huag, — i^ yili i»c£, ^i»- — yih t*he, severally signifies the whole, all together. We only remark in addition, that ^ to, many, is often used m a collective pronoun, and that words like $ ketin, a heed; '4^ yuen, clouds ; ^ fung, bees; are frequently used to denote multitudes, though it would not be ex- actly proper to consider them in the light of collectives. We may easily perceive after the perusal of this Chapter, that the pronouns of this gigantic language as varied as those of the richest language.

CHAPTER IV\

• .

OTMERALS,

I. THERE are three v?ays of writing the numerals, The first is called the& ^ fc§ ^ S ^ yuen pua tf?ihBCK) miih tsze, or the original mode of writing them, antfris common in books or ac«;ounts, The second is cat

UM capital mode of writ?ng> and consists in a selection of ^^meters shnikr in sound, but of various meanings. 7 hey are ased ia b«rds and imporiant document^ te

CHAP, IV. NUMERALS. 63

prevent their being easily erased or chants**!* or for the sake of ornament, and the display of learning. Tfce third and last called fa ^ fo "lit ^ t*a ^a *e*& sootsze, or^ **f $$ Ijfc g .^ soo chow masoonaufe tsze, are abbreviated forms used to facilitate writing, and expedite the drawing out of accounts; they derive iheir names from Loo-Choo, the place where they were per- haps invented.

2, The iphole system of numeration is decimals which the Chinese carry through all their calculations, to the highest and lowest numbers. They went ongin- al]y not further than a myriad, #ad up to this day go on numbering in this manner. Thus the? say, f- J£ sbih wan, ten myriads, for 100,000; E ~f" j^ san 8hih wago, thirty myriads, for 300,000; — gf ^ yih pih wan, a hundred myriads, for 1,000,000; — ^F Hf yih ts&m wan, a thousand myriads, for 10,000,000. The follow* ing is of later invention: such asfj|:yih, 100,000; ^bchaou, 1,000,000 - JC king, 10.000,000;^ kae, 100,000,000. The word^ te,J^ jang,>^| kow>|g ke'en,3£ ching, and^ tsae,are also used by the BueL hfiist and Tao^-priests to enumerate their endless kulpas.

3. Some numerals are used in a peculiar manner, of which we shall exhibit the principal idioms.

— Yih, is used in numerous compounds, some of which have been alluded to, in a formelr part of this work, and need not be repeated here: the following,

however, may be noticed: — yih yih, one by one;

— /fc yih sin, with one heart, unanimous; || — J£ woo yih pub, without exception; ^ — pub yih, or 5j£ — feiyih, not merely one kind; — ]|p yih king, as soon as; — |g yih meen, at the same time, whilst, one while, occasionally repeated: as — 5f A P3 — jg 1^" ^ 3fc tft $Ji y& m^en ch'huh jnun, yih meen tuy cliang pan shwo taou, whilst he was going out of th* gate, he said at the same time to his servant, &cV — jfej yih tsft, partly: as - |ij ft % — % ft if yih tsih e ke, yih tsih e keu, partly with joy, and partly with fear; ^ — wan yih, one in ten thousand, scarce* IjT, if perhaps; — 0 ;|c yih k'how shwuy, one draught

68 NUMERALS. CHAP, IV,

of water; — ||- yih she, at one time; — Jt )?tfyiia tee£ she, in a moments time; — jfc yih tsze, once; ~— ^ yih sang, the -whole life; — %j}s yrh t'hung , as soon #s he heard: and so with various other verbs: as — jjfe yih shwuy, as soon as he slept; ^ — ^ yih wang, as soon>as he went away. They use also — ^ yih wei, orj|~ — chuen yih, ad<lieted to^ devoted to. So also -— ^ y8* se&9 a littfe; — H yife baeu, in a sligfit do gree-;-— ^ pK teen, one dot^ j^ — ^-.-jfc ^. ^ bea ho yit geayyay we yew, he had n$f a single ar- ticle of furniture. This numeral is also oft^n used be- tween a reduplication of the verb: as^ *^ ^ k'han yihk'haiij to take a look at;$£ — ^ seay yih seay, just Avrite a little. When the numeral itself is repeat- ed, it conveys to the verb something af the participial meanings a« — ^ — '$1 yih lae yih wang, going and coming;'—* || — j&jih tub yih seay, reading aud writing,; but it is also used in this manner with other parts of speech: a* — i r- 1^ yih shangyih hea, up and doivn; — >^ — ^ij yih teen yih taou, topsyturvy.

4. The second cardinal number ^ urh,is used . for both : also in the following connections ^f* Z~ puh urh, the same; ^--jfe urfa sim, double minded: ^ ^urh ts'hm, the two relatives, parents, ^ Leatig, is syno- nyrnous with the above; as ^ H leang e, cr j^ "" ^ J^ngta, the two regular oir great ones, i. e. heaves and ^artfi; ^. ^ leang teaou,>the. plaintifi' and defendant; % ^ leaiig mei, the two handsome things, i. e. genius m lams, and beauty in woman; 5- ^ san sze, to ilunk.

5. Ihey go on to enumerah: j^ ^£. tsaesan, means <%a?e and again, frequently, thrice :Z |SL san tsuh^ the three relations, viz. father, mother, and wife; 2. $i

g, the three ties in life, vis. prince and minis- r ftiriaer^md son, husband and wife; jL ^ san kwang, three lights, viz. «un, mooa, and stars; 2- ^ sau , the three fowers^ viz. heaven, earth, and mate; S ^ san pan| the three classes of attendants in a public <eiurt; £ ^ san paou, the three previous Budd^; E. [ san see, the three officers, viz. tlie treasvrei; ^ and superfntendant of Ihe salt ciepartrj;e^i; £

CHAT. iv KtjiJSTiAi.8. 615

jfc IP* s*n keih te, *ke three &%3>est Jiiefaiy ranks.

6. They have afe©^. % sae fang, the four Bar- ters;® 1^ sze hea, in every part; Kg ^ sze shoo> in every place; 83 jg sse meen, an every side. So also )$ ^ sze e,all the BarbarisKK|]g ^ sae paoo, the four precious things* viz. pencil, pamper, ink, and ink- stone; ygt vfe sze hae-the four seas, by Hrhkt China is supposed to be surrounded, often used for the whole Empire ;.3J j|j sze heang. the four points of the eo^- pfass; B3 ^L sze ke, and W l^p sze she, the four seasons; $9 ^ sze t'he, or 83 ^ sze she, the fct& members, or extremities; and |5f ^ sze tuh, the four rivers, (in the north of China.)

7. Tbey proceed with theii groujniigs ioJLwoo. five; as Jt ^ wookuh, five kinds of grain, or grain in general ;;£ ^ TITOO Itin, the five relations in Ufe^ viz, priDce and suojeci, , husband and wife, pRronts a^dch?- dren, elder and younger brothers, with frie^ulsandeom- pmiions;j£ ^c ^°° Seaou, the five preeejl-ts, respect- mg, each ef these ;JL ^--woohing, the five elements, viz. water, fire, wood, metal, and earth, of which all in- visible thfangs are^oom^osed, and to whteh correspond the JL M ^roo sung, five planets, vk. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jepiter, and Saturn; JL ^ woo tsang, the five viscera; 3E. ^ woo sih, the five colours; £ *#~ woo wei, the five tastes; £ ^& woo yo, the five highest mountains in China, towards which the worship of the ancients was directed ; jE ^ woofeeo, the five ranks of nobility; and i ^ woo- fang, the four points of the compass and fee centre, or zenith.

8. They go on to enumerate ft &~ Kih ko, the four quarters of the world with the zenith and nadir ;^r ^ ihh poo, the six supre.ne tribunals at Peking;-/; jjL luh fang, the six departments of administration in the provinces, in imitation of the foregoing ;;/\ ^ luh keih, the six calamities or inflictions, 1 hus they have also -£ g^ tseih ching, the seven celestial regulator?, viz. the sun, moon, and five planets; A. ^" pa fang, the eight p&iueipit] r . ••' juhordinate.poiutsof the compass;

/V a Ta, ih-i eiwbi diSeit;nt la\v*s of the criming

70 NtmSRASX. CHAP. IV,

code; A. :ff f>a hicg, the eight different ways by which the tributary grain arrives at Peking

9, They advance in their cfa*aiieatiaa of numerals* to jt> kew: as,fc R) kew num. the nine gates of the capital ;;#, Jc &2W- keaon, the nine apertures of the lieart;^ jJL kew pin? the nine gradations of official Tank ; JL. -tik kew chow, the nine provinces ; JL ^J kew bm^, the nine junishine;af3;& &_ kew tseuen, the nine fountains^, underneath which lies hades ; *f ^ shih tseuen, entirely perfect; *f -^ sh*h fun, very much : "g7 *|* pih kwaa, all the Mandarins; f -fe£ pih sing, the hundred surwaines, the people; g" 4^ P^n hwuy? tiie ge* neral assemblage of nerves^ the braii); ~J? ,^r, pih miihj the whole class of trees; ^ ^ pih ke, a Unudred plans, a great many schemes; ~g~ '$£ ~g *}* pih fk pih chung, prove successful in every enterprise; *Jf ^ -^ pih tsesn wan, an immense number; ^ ^L tseen tsew, a hundred autumns, the birth-day of a person of rank ;

^P IT ^ 1^ ts^en P^ *^a to^ft a Sreat wany ser- wats; ^f ^ ts^en suy, a title of a king, Your Majesty ! ^ ^|| tseen chow, the same; ^f & J| ^ tseen saa wan shwuy, all woods and waters; ^f ^ ^& ^r tseen neen wan tsae, an amazing long time; ^ g wan kwo, all nations; ^ ^ wan suy, $Jj ^ ^ wan suy yay, and ^ $£ ^ wan wan suy, all mean His Imperial Ma- Jesty » H ^ wan show, the Imperial birth-day; ^ ^r wan fang, all pahs of the work!;$| ^| ^ ^wau nan tsung- min^, at all risks obey you; j^ ^ wan she, forallagc^^ Wan, followed by a negative increases its power: as$| ^ ^ ^ wan puh kantso, I Y^-'Id not on any account dare to do so; ^ ^ yih chacu, or 4fe ^, chaou Trin, the millions of the people; j^ yfa king chaou, the capital

10. Fractions, ^ ^ ling &oo, are expressed in the foil owing manner: as jEL ^ ^ — ^ sanfunyew yih fun, or H ^ it *"* san fun che yih, one4hird; ^7 ^ ^ ® luh fun che sze, two-thirds; ^L -^ >£ J£ kew fun che woo, five-ninths; ^ pwan, one-half;

^ vin yih yuen pwan, one dollar and a half: yih men pwan, or — j £ yih ueeu

CHAP* XV. NUMERALS. 71

yew pwan> *one year and a half; £f 41; ^ HJ" neen ke pwaii pih, about half ce tury old; ^ jsK P^an heang. lialf a minute; ^ ^ pwaa yay, midnight; ip -j- pwan tsfce, a son in law ; ^ % ta "pwan, the majority ; ^£ ^ ^ j|^ pwan bin ywan e, half belieti&g half db-ucting. **p Chung, sand ^ yang, &*£ both used in the sei-s?;- of half: a quarter is 48? ^ j£ — sze fiin the yth; a qiu^ ter of an Lour is j?^ ^ — %$ she shin yih k'hih,

11. Once, twice, thrice, &c. are expressed in Chi- nese I/y joining the jiuiBerais to^ tsge, lU hwuy? ^ fan, and if, tiaou: as —

one: He *;Jt- syotb^e, .several i5*»irB; >L H *'S^ jih,

second day ;]3| |gj S2ie.hwiiy, four Cimea; S JO U5 ..<fc

sac hwuy sze tsxe, repeatedly , >> ||- I&h fe» » six times ;

^ ^kefan, several times;— xj| yili tsao«i, once;

-}* v|f sMh tsaou, teaiiines; ^ ^§ fea tsaoiu aeveral

times] fp ^jt tseS tsze^ j£ die ts2e,§ ife.l'o.y tsze,

f & iuy tsae,^ ^feen tsze, ^ ^ to

^Lhaou ke tsze, ^ .jg: wang

^- ./f se£ seS, |f H. tsae

t«?ae else san,jji ^ teih texe, |f ^

chuBg-dbg che^ all signify i»any times,

12. Double is ex|^e^sed by.JI chuag, wd shwang:asE ^ chui^fuli, a douUe t?ress; i ^ cliiing fah, again; j| ^j| chung k'hih, to reprint; 2. Z "i^ Si[ ^ san C^ITP«S ^h^v.^b luh, three doubted urite.sk; — H $Jt yih tihwaag w^5 a pair ef stockings; % ^ shwiicg ts'hit), parents :^ |f shwang shwang, io pairs, ^ ^ woo shwnng, iaeomparable, geerles^; ^ >^ sliWMig tseuen, boA perfect Jp Tan,^ tuh, %$ till, asd <Jt chuh, all in5?an sin^e; as 9 $ tan SBS* a single jacket; j£ JJf tiaa tau, only, s^ly ; ^ ^ tih ehow, a 4ogle boat; 3$ — >\ tuh yi jin, ««ke siagJe tnau;^ ^ t^h show, with a single haml; J| j| chili ^hin, one peisoa alone. Fold is expressed %jr^ pei, and ^ kea; as Z fa san pei, ;^ 21 f§? to sail pei, or >f 1^ 51 iS &» shaag sao pei, threefold; i ^L M san ctjow shin, a three fold cord; jfr •— f» Iksa yih pei,

72 NtmBKALS. CHAP, IT.

double; ^ ^ -f" if? shing che shih pei* ten times more; Jtu >fe" j§k£a]uh pei, fix fold.

13. In order to express the ordinal, 1foe Chmese prefix Jjl te, before the cardinals: as^ & te sze,, be fourth;^' ^ te kew, the ninth. It Might, however, to be observed, that they are seldom used, and that the Chinese generally express the carJinals thus: ^ -Jt ^ /L ^ taou kwang shih kew aeen, in the 19th year of Taou-kwang: .2* % san yufc, the third mouth; 3& $3 keueu sxe, the fourth bo^k.

14 Odd is expressed by^" Hug: as ^ ^f ^ i^ -f- urh tseen Kng luh shih, 2,OSO;^ ^ ^ ^ «»e was Jing sze, 40,004. More is expressed by^ yn: as s* IT ^ ^ ^ foh pih ye« yu ts^en^ more than 600<ra€h,-f g ^; ,|t shih yuen yu shieig, ten dollars are H) ore than enou i^h ; ^ g Jt Jh sh^iyuene t^f) dollars andmore; ^ t. Hh S puhehangshib not more than ten dollars ; -^ g jji }; a].(h,yuen less than ten dollars, T^ T; V 1 P^1 ^ s^'^ not below tea dollars : ^ «L 3L jjj fl f»tih kwo leatig san jlh, more th?ui two or three days; ^ i" ^ ^ ^ urh Bhih yew yu neen, twenty and odd years; ^ -f~ t soo sfeih rveen lac, for several tei}s of years ; /g -f- ^F ieih fcae shih ueeu, during ten years ; -f ^ ishih neea e wang, fo? these ten years past; ^ — ^ ^ £ 0*. neen yih pih ling woo say >, o»e huii- dred and five years of age;^ -^ 4- 5. j^ show liih shtfe san suy, at 63 years of age ; -f ^" ^ ^^^ yew san, thirteen^ ^ ^ ^L luh yew urh, sixty two. These ar« the peeri&i&r modes in which the Chinese use the numerals and they ought consequently to be imprinted upon the memory.

15, Addition is called by the Chinese X4 soo4 substraetioa ^ $t t^eo soo; multipiicatioa |l shliig shoo; the raultipifefitioa tabled f^ &~ i$L kew fao soo; and division is called ^ ^t ftin soo. The whole process of arithmetic is performed by the ( bi« with great dexterity m the afiacus, a« instrument whid* every Siuologue trill be eoaversant, We have kkeady remaxked thai the decimal

CHAP. IV. NUMERALS. 73

system was carried by the Chinese to a very great ex- tent. Most of their money accounts, their measures, and their whok calculations being founded upon» it

In computing money they use the folio wijjg terms. Ten 'j§* hwuh, make one 4^ sze, ten^ sze« one^ h, ten^- haou. one /It le, (or cash) ten/!! in »vne *?- (or candareen) ten^ fun, one, ||[.t6een, (or mace) Leu ^ tseen, one $| leang, (atael. or ounce.) For heavier articles they add 16 S§ leaiig, make one % kin, (or cat- ty, 1J lb, avoirdupoise) 100 j>f kin, make one ^ ten, or ^L tan, (pecul, 133^ Ib.)

17. ' Tlieir long measure is the following: 10 & fun. make one 3~ tsun, (or pint:) 10 ^ tsun, one K. chih, (or oovid) 10 }L chih, one ^t chang, (about four yards; in Canton a yard is called^ ma;) 10 ^: chang make one $\ yin, In- measuring distances they say, live Jt chih. make one^ poo, (or pace about 5^ feet,) 360 ^ poo, make one $. le, (Chinese mile, about 659|( yards,) 250 HL lev make" one^ too. (mathematical degree, which is also »iivided scientifically into 60^ fun, or minutes; and each of these 1j~ fun, into sixty ^ chaou, or s* coeds.) In land measure ilve ^ chih, (as above) make one ^ poo, or § kuag, 240 Jj, kung? make one SX. mow, and lOOpijLmow, one^ king,

18. In dry measure, their mode oi reckoning is the following:;?; ^t luh suh, make one i kweiv ten i kwei, one ty chaou, ten^? chaou, one i|c tso, ten jjfc one ^ cb^, ten ^ cho, one ^ho, ten ^ ho, one ci\i«g, or pint, (about 31| cubic pints) ten ^ shing,

3|- t<*w, or peck, (about 316 cubic puts) five Jy tow, on? S4 hwiih, (or 15bO cubic pints) and twoi=fhwuh5 make one >6 shih,(or 3160 cubic pints.) This is the scientific arrangement, not exactly followed in com- mon life, where two ft yo, make one ^feo, the remain- der it as above.

19. In working time the Chinese make use of fwo sets of horary characters: the first is *f ^ shth kaa, the ten stems, or JJc ^ t'heen kan, the ceie,s*tial stems,

hese are f kea, t^ yih, ^| piu^, X tine. ri£ woo, ft

wei. The oilier *t-

74 NUMERALS. CHAP. IV.

ries consists of he "f ~ j£. shih urh che, the twelve branches; ais<> called :$fc Xte cne» the terrestrial bran- ches; which are ^ iszfi, JL chow, <j? yin. JjS maoiuj^ shin,£; sze, ^ Tfoo^^wei, 1^ shra^jgj yew, J^'sefih. and J( hae.

V2(X For hours the twelve branches are used finely. The civil day of 24 hours is divided into twelve periods comprising two of our hour:-;, each £ |[ si

They commence fr^n; 11 o'clock th*.

first character iijriu,^ the time between 11 arv o'clock. By prefixing J£ chmg e'Tui $ If aou, to these dhnracters the twelve periods are divi- o 24 ho>*rs,

Thus JL *f chingw«o, exact ntK>u., or 1 keaottwoo, 11; ^.. M ..T ^ cbiv.-

keacu hae, 9; R M. &c. Tlie j^^ she s^ are divided into eight^ k'h'ih, quarters; an- these into ^ pwan, or halves;* as jt J8$ *— ^| chine seA yih k'hin, a quarter past eight; P. M. $ *f? ^ keaou yin urh k'hihpr;*,::, 37{ r*iinute nasi A. M, I he night from seven in the evening, 10 five IP. the morning, is divided into live J* k^sisg. or watches. each comprising two hours. The sanie twelve branche^ sen'e also to designate the points of the compass: thu> ^h tsze, means north; ^ woo, south: ^jj maou, east; and W yew, west; the other eight denote the inter- mediate points. Most of their months consist of 30 days; the first month is called J£ JJ ching yut; the first clay of each month is called ^ 0 Is'hoo jih: while tfeis% ts'hoOj is prefixed to all the days up to the tentl*. day: as ^f - B is'hoo urh jih, the second day: ^ff "L S ts*hoc san jih, or sithply ^J 2. ts'hoo san, ibe third day* &c. Tke month is occasionally divided into three decades, called Jt || shang seun; vj* 3? chung seim> and *T ^ hea seun; the first, second, and third decades ; ^j |*J seun ituy, within ten days ; §| wae, more than ten da y»; Z ^ san seiui, one

seun, the same: Jf g* -t ^ Been e already 70 years of age. An intercalary of wBirh there are seven in nineteen years, is 5 M Jlm.Vu^, the rule for fixing the same i*.

. iv. *. 75

that when during a lunar month, the sun does not enter any particular sign of dis zodiac, that mouth is in- tercalary.

The Chinese year is luni-solav, consisting of 12 lima? months, to which an intercalary month is added as a- bove, to make the lunar correspond with the solar year. it commences on the new moon nearest to the fifteenth degree of Aquarius, and is corrected according to the so- lar year, by the use of twenty four terms or half moriim, called |p ^r t-se'£ ling ; eacb of which expresses the pe- riod of the sims passage through the half of a zodiacal ign, .See the amused table. )

CHINESE TEEMS.

Jan. 6. /h '%%- Seaou-han. Sun 15* in Capricorn. Jan. 21. *. *Ta-han, >^

fr'eb. 5. A * Leib-chun, j; Site in

* w

Feb. 19, 33 3JC Yu-shwuy, )0 . «..

Mar. 5. ^^King-chih, $ Sunm Pisces.

Mar. 20. ^ ^ Chun-fun, > c .

Apr. 5. Jt 58 Tsiug-ming, 5 &Un "

Apr. 20. 'Sc S Kuh-yu, > ,, . _

May . 5. A 3E Leih-hea, { Sun m Taurtts-

May 21. j}» ^t Seaou-mwan, > ,, . 0

June 6. -S Jl Mang-chung, {&«*»"» Genum.

June 21. i j£ Hea-che, ) c . _

July 7. ;J^ ^f Seaou-shoo. J *un m ^nc™- July 23. A 4Ta-shoo,

Aug. 7. Jt Jt Leih-tsew, J Sun m

A^g. 23,^ ^ Choo-shoo, > , vr

.rep. 8. fi^Pih-loo, ^un 111 Vwgo.

Sep. 23. $fc ^- Tsew-fiin. > _ Oct 8. ^ ^ Han-loo, Sua « Llbra-

Oct. 23. ® if^ Sbwang-keang

N ov, 7. 4 ^ Leih-tani:. <Suu ln

NOT. 22. ;h €: ." eaou-»euh. ?

\

Dec 7. A * Ta-seuh, 5 &un ln

Dec. 22. 4? $ Tung-cbe, Suu ei>ters

76

NUMERALS.

CRAP. 1Y.

The Chinese count their years either according to the r».-i*?'j of an Krnperor; as for 1840 they say >3t 3fe ~- "t if* taou kwang urh shih Been, or according to a cycle, called ^ ? keS tsze, of *^fc T "?" hwa ke£ tsse, each consisting of 60 years: these are marked by the above horary character-, (See the annexed tahle. 1 840 is the 37th year Jf ^ k£ng tsze, of the 75th cycle, since the days of Hwang-te. )

THE EWA-KEA-TSZE, OR CYCLE OF SIXTY

keatsie

2

f i

ym chow

ping ym

4

n

kea

12

yih hae

13

iiigmaou

tote 14

TJL

ting chow

I hi« I woo yin

6 Jb

! ke

17

18

*£

»ii< SZ-.

19

21

kett shin

'23

yki

31

W

•» i

32

41

51

£ shin

42

we

ping uu

Tt

feac

25

WOO tSJC

26

mug shin

yib see

piag woo

A

kf chow

f^

sin «rc

9

;in whin

10

woe

20

we

kang yin

«

tinLr yew ting we

,§5. i 45,

>$£ ;?

r/** seufai i woosJSiiri

36, 46

ke hae | ke yew

37 47,

A jL. "^tb /^X" j ^t/%

Miaou

29

I 38 [ 4^ ^JL i ^^

sin ebow i «ui hat

39. 49

jin shis«

30

«-£.

kwei «?

jin yin j jin tsxt 40 50

kea yii

52

yih maou

ping shin

-54

re

sze

55

56,

&8

.57,

kang shin

58

fg

*iu yevr

59

jin scuh

60.

k^vci

CHAF. V.

21 . In enumerating, the Chinese do not generally the ordinal* as our first, secondly, thirdly. &c. hv» 1 adopt iht> following method las**- ^jt yih lac, first ~ $L arh lae, secondly; (also occasionally $» — ^R ^ ^ /£- ) or — * 3% yib chay, in th« first instance; ~~ % urh eh ay, in the second instance: or <— jjf.yih tsih, in th« first place; -j2. |$ urh tsih. in the second place; or ~~

H yih yu&,ji Q urh yuc, the same-; -->r % — keyih, the ftrst;j}( ^ ke urh, the second; &c. In many in- stances they only use — yih, and will go through a whole sones of subirrtr, prefecte^ >ath — yih.

Fii^t, second, and tte are expressed byjt shang,

41 chung, and T hert Fire^ and last by^^rche chung, ^ $L pun mo, and Jf ,C t'ho'-v v ei. First *od second by jE. ching; ai>d^tsung. First, upper- mo6t is jt y^en: as ^ ^ yoen jih, the first day of the year; ;cv if yuen neen, the first year *f ? reign. FOT the first 'lay -:>fa TI/'-'V; month ^ so, is sometimes used instead of^KJ ts'hoo, first. ^ The uppennost ivs also ex- pressed hy^ kwfi as ^ $& isuy kwei, the chief of sinners. Otherwise first (before others) is expressed by It" ^ show seen. t>r ^ ^ -ts tiy seen. Last: as last year is expressed by ^ ^ k'heu neta, ^ ^ kew i>een. or .f: i^: krh ^bc last day of the year is

CHAPTES Y

THE VERB.

1, As the Chinese verb has not yet been exhibited in all its bearings, we shall be the more particular upon this suteect Thus it will be our object to show, how. thoughTtevoid of moods and tenses, it is made to answer all the purposes of our conjugations and infections; while we must always bear in raind, that unless rhe distinction become necessary, aone of the grammatical

78 AUXILIARIES. CHAP. V.

particles or auxiliaries are employed. It is an exiensive subject in the disquisition of which, we in treat the rea- der's patience, which will, as we hope, be not inappropri- ately bestowed. We shall not burden the memory by rule's, but mostly teach by examples, and endeavour to shew by these, the various modes in which the verb, tailed by the Chinese !pr ^ tung tsze, or Jg '^ hwo tsze. a r-rO-viDg or living ehm~acteris used,

AUXILIARIES.

2. We begin with this class, as affording an intfCM duction to the subsequent remarks. From the nature of the language we may easily suppose that auxiliaries are rather numerous. The principal ones with their va- rious uses are enumerated below.

3. The first is % tih, to get, or obtain; it also sig- nifies ability. Thus f£ ^ tso tih, it may be done, practicable; $t ^ gae t*h, may he loved, amiable; 'ft Jf* 1$ te® Fuk ^' i**»ay not be done, impossible, ~$L % -flf shwo puh tih. it cannot be spoken, unspeak-

J i & ^ %!t PU& tih- shwo, idem. J| jfa ^ -j£ mu

lib shwo, cam'-- saj anything; $r ^ ^ *$t seay

. dh puh k'hwae, cannot write fast; -^ ^ ^ puh tih e.

*: 3%- ^f puh tih puh, cannot avoid; ^ -$J £ pun vih ieaou, cannot close ; ^ ^he tih, can rejoice; ^ ^••kixig tih, frightened; <| ^ nan tih, difficult to be obtained; If <$ & ^. ^than tih woo yen, can be de- sired without loathing; It -f| T ^ mei tih puh shing, can be considered i>eautifid in the extreme; ^ ^ i^zc tih, to have possession of one's self; ^g ^ seang tih, to be mutually agreeable;^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ tsingpiih tih tung pCih tih, could neither move nor be at rest. As already shown above, ^ tih, often indicates the su- perSative degree; as ^ -ff ^ panu'tili keih, _as cruel **» powftihle £, >fC ||r pa puh tih. or ^ ^«"<> -ib. «<mvey the meaningof the Qptatii

: be^>; ;^ ^ iieeti tih, or^j| ^ j>iv that it may ?>e avoided, or dhpettetf'i ^;^-: r?. 4^ -f&

CHAP. V, \lj\n, lAfUES. 73

meen pub til', *i %\ A* tpf sang puh lip, unavoidable,

4. We next rtfir to j|f cho, Wnieh is in some res- pects related to the above, though less definable. lr means to cause, to effect, and, in many in-statices, v/heii affixed to verbs, cannot be explained by any corres- ponding word in English: for instance .it M leih chi\ he' stood :5| 3f teih cho, did kick; £ If tso cho. sat: ^ ^ na cho, took. To this we add th$ f~

inst i.; ni caning will he clearly seen: «i;

^f • k till we fed; J$t li~ keen cho. got

;!-. oft"%V • «","ho. lookF.fl to-war^ ; $£- ^ ..^"

shwuy • puh cho, could not sleep ;^ ^F\ j^f tsin puh cho, could not find; W ^ "^f lew cho gno, retained m.^;^ ^ ^ kan tih cho, succeeded in the pursuit; H? 7J[ 1& ^^en cn^ t'ha, thought about him; ^ ^ inei cho, oi\ what account, for what purpose; ^ ^ cl>o keih; to be in haste; ^ ^- cho ling, to issue or- ders; TJJ: ^ cho naou, got into a rage, |j| >^ cho 16, or ^ ^ yew cn°n answerable for* The general meari- insr, in most of these instances is, to reach, effect, come to obtain, cause.

5. We may also specify^ kea on, or ^ |;r ra«se with;^she/^tfc^]^keih;^\ie3 'iiKij§t

are all used to form a neuter causative, the first two ex- clusively in conversation: as^i ^ If -!£ ^ ^ keaou gno chow yay k'hin laou, make me work night and day;^^l -i$ ^ jS5 hewkcaoit foo t'hung wrm,, do not let the woman hear of it;^t ^ ^Ji ife" ^ ^ keaou gno jooho pan sze, how shall I be ahle to ma- nage the business;^: 5jp fl@ ^t 8^ ^ ieaou 0* ko urii shwuj cho, made the child sleep; v$ $% ff: 'ff -^ H ^ keaou gno tso heu to go safe, caused me to do a ^reatdeai of wickedness; *$ ^ ^ ^ -^ ^ keaou - i.ih k liae k'how, he gave me no opportunity for opep rw^th;^kj£^^ "I »4 ^ 'S - Ifc

^ %" joofaft : ven. keaou gno me-htso le hmiy.

by your m^cr: speech and frequent repetition you pre- vent sue from understanding" you ;*4 ]i|j ,-^r j^ ,^ ^: keaou shasig sae to ^Kth Uh. r^.^kc it insupportable t« the merchants. ^. Keaou, oii accouutof tbesimila-

80 AUXILIARIES, CHAP. V.

ritv of* sound, is often used in the same manner.

ifc ffi She tih, it will do; fc A § -ft & ^t she jin show nan woo soo, to cause numberless sufferings to people;^ f^ ^ ^t woo she gno shih, do not cause me to sailer loss; -?Jt A •3ff :j^ :fL she jin ke shoo lae, cause people to send letters, -fife She, is also used for perhaps: as also 15 ftl^he she, /II fjt k£a she, in th same sense ;-f~ ^ &*g wan, to give notice; ^ A

•Ir ling jin await pe. to cause people to rejoice; -fy

^ SJ1 1$t £t w**n ^ng k^a tsze :?DO sze^ ^1° not ^et your family starve;^ jg» ^ ^ pe tseue pe ynen, to cauc>e the sources of evil to he cut off; j^t ^" gf- ^ ^ pc yew £o e iae, cause him to have something to rely on;

T4 -$f $- jfc ^" ^ rfe Pe ^^ P6 tsze >rcw PinS gkn- cause that . ttiei'e may ^ be peace on both sides. This

word is also whiten ^ pe.

$$ Keih, like the tbyraor, denotes to give: as ^ j^|- shan** kf:ih, to ^ive a re ward; f| ^ mae keih, to sell to; 3^^ keihtexe, give a commuaication, or commu- iiitate;|^^ 3^.^ keih ling hung pae, eause them to receive a passpor! . In edicts, this word is used in various ways. But in conrersation ic is often used in the passive sense: as ^ ^ || ^ keih gno ma t'ha, he was blamed by me; ^ %$ $& j^ gno keih t'ha nu, I was blamed by hirw;|^-^^f <^ keih gno »bwo , he was told by me, •

Che, nieaas also to cause: as £( gt c che, in or- der to; JL )JSk che e? cause that; |£ ^ che t^ to com- munieat^ information;^ ^ ke che, address to ? ^t ^ che che, to make known, or cause to know, ^ ;£f jj^ ^ che yew ts?:e sze, until this atfair was brougi»t a- bout; Jt ?& ^ie s*e» to cause death, ^ ^ J^J ^ JJ§. ^ k'hin laou r ehe tewan tseen, worlt diligently in or- der to gain money ; ^ ^ fcew che, do not let: Jt '^s' ehe ling, cause.

6. jjK^ Peih, "I* kae,JS« ji"gv^wo^M seil- 5! e5 ^' tang, andj®. ie, all mean oughi, mugl; and should, either singly or ia compounds. ?ji ijfr Wei peih. it is not jaecessary, it is net certain; $fc ^ pai'h teo,

CHAP V AUXILIARIES, 81

))k |c peih yaou, all mean indispensably necessary, fy? Peih, often denotes the future tense, conveying a si- milar meaning to our shall: as $*' 3J£ peih lae, shall come;^ *jj£ peih se'ay, will write ; ijfc $£ peih tseang, certainly will;^ $£ peih je», o*^ *j& ^ peih joo she, it must be thus; /£ & peih king, it will be so af- ter all

Ying kae, ought ;^ ^ kae £aBgs should; kae tsze, ought to die; j^ j^ ^ ^ ^ keu tunge kae yay, conduct as it ought tobe jfe ^* \ingtang, ought, what is proper: & ^ tsae ying, certainly ought, i! isnjy duty; ^g j^ seang yung, mutually required: JJL ^c ying shing, to take upon oneV self an obligation, to promise; JL J| ^ #t we* P^g yew tsze^ it ought nof to be thm ^ ^ Woo seu, $r jjt woo peih, ^ ji" woo e, mean severally must, ought, necessary ? iftdfejpensable; as -f§r )% %woo suh hing, you mMt walk fast; ^ ^ Jt ^ woo peih tsin leih, it is accessary that you should ex- ert yourself; ^ jt ^f ^ woo e neang t'heeu, w« ought to look up to heaven,

J?jf J^ Seu yaou, necessarily must; ^f ^ seu t'hae, must wait;H> ^ji ^sung seu, above all must, you must decidedly; zjljjji $jfr ^ keu^ seu ttsban show, must cut off hid head; |TA 3j( ^& nan ta seu hw&n, young men when grown up should be married ;^jf ^ ^ ^ seu woo tih chuy koo, must not on any account make tences. ^ JSeu, is now and then used in the same ^ $ Woo e, and j£ Jt le e, ought, it is proper; # 3C *ean? et befitting;^ J & ;fr £ 3^ woo e ch'hiib leih wan seun, you ought to exert yourself to finish the business: jg. ^ peen e, suitable; £| j£ tih e. proper; J ,^ e jen, feuitable;^ Jt »hih e, just what ought to be.

5£ '^ Leta-g,^ ^ pun tang, mean what ought to be done; ;Jfj ^ seang tang, what is fitting to be done; IB M ta«g seay, must write; J? ^ ^ 3t ^ 1« tang lae t^heen taou, it is reasonable that we should trust to providepee;^.^ ^ g- pun 8<3 tang wei, what ou^ht to be done.

CHAP. T\

M Le, just, reasonable, ought ;£§ $f ^ ^ le so tang wei, what ought to be done;j!j| J£ fgj |j| lee *vS?i tsuj',he ought in reason 10 he punished,

1 . $gf Yue»,|£ yo, 4? jaon,V^| she, and if k'hang, a?l mean wislv, desire, want wtH: as^ £ji tsnng yuei\ H j|: yuen e, to iwdbpH; $£ A ^ ;ji yuen wan jin heang f uB, w^ wish -all men to eajoy happineaa, j|f ^

5P ft M "1 X f # fT-^ '^3V yew seay tih, yuen tuh ye^* ruh piih tin. wishing to write write, wishing to read and cannot read;^ y«eu e k*fae diing, wv - -- you to go on your journey.

^ yuetr T;;- sn4t 3t 4t'^ y*9 mean to de-

But could not; ^ ^ ^ ^ eyo irang elmen, he wished to sail |£ ^ "^ N^ e yoho vim, what does fee wish to do? J£ ^fc |f ^ A ^ ^f y»^n yo yo Seftj^in seang ho, he wished toiwjj ^a good tern>« Mrith his family,

p Yaou, and Jik & yo yaou? mean to want, wish, &&* as $ ^ # yaou ch'iivA keae, he wanted to go out; Jc |r ^tJ^ yoyacmV b cliing, he wanted to atr tac 5t the city; ^ 4| tsuy JAOU, or ^ ^ kin yaou, verj much wanted

3^ She, is used to express desire, wish, but is not r^soy«*J so frequently as any of the above auxiliaries £•» B§ ^ ^ ^- sii-* yu yo shih, io be addicted cc eat- ing and drinking; **f ^ ^ ^ sli<3 yo woo keung h<? ffe-iished unb-iimded desires or appetites; >fjt ^ ^ i le she^e. ]« was only desirous of gain. K'hang, -/ill, to be willing as ^ ^ pub

uw:, he v^^s a^wvlliug f^> follow,-^ , to absent to, to agree to , ;j| ^ ^ ji»6

one was willing Lo do it.

The verbs ft pa,^ ta, & lae, £ k'hei^ t^ tliae, |^ kanv|f h^»gi nnd $| p'ha, are used in various ways as auxiliaries.

$B Pa, to take hold of, to grasp, often occurs as ai; auxiliary, an*i is w many instances untranslatable: a$ Jf ife fe f^ -S- A ?>a fhab taou fsngBuy, tafc B

<THAP. V. AUXILIARIES

drag him inside the room;^0,$f ^ -#$ pa seasg 1ft clruen, get the box on board the vessel ; $£ J^ % H&- ?? $t fe J$ ^ H p» P^n tse che tsuy jin. heiing teih fhow, throwthe guilt of his wife upon his ht ther; H? 4fc J^9 pa wei woo yung*, deem it of' no- use; ^S yih kcia shaleaots, killed the whr>!*j tV 3T Pa §no k'hmg leaou. treated rrie pa sin tsoo bo, to feed the riie

of his heart towards him; $J ^ jjf ~* >^ pa sin mt yih mo. just lay your hand upon y<rur hea-rt; |g ^ ^J ^ ^ ill ^ Pa S1*0 ^^R k'hau fill-in tseea^look u.p*»- us withsaelicoale?iip^;4E jij* ^ ^ W pa seaou te tang shen^ consider say brother as a ^irmmis man ; $L

pe, to view riches as a fteetiug i^>«ul: ..From' these va- rious examples H v^ii appear, feat the word, either gh eb a causative meaiimg, or niay be translated % view, ar consiior, especially when followed, by <§* tm^jfe or^ idae,

43- Ta, to beat, or strike, is used m a variety o as ata auxiliary: thus |j ^ ta »eao7i, to sweep; $J *i$- ta tea, to fight; ^j |^ ta teen, to arrange; £f ^ta ITS, ^ ta pan, to dress ;fj ^ ta shwuy^ to tafhing. to enquire; J^''^fr 'jjtf iM yu gno ta ko ehaou meen, turn the face to me; M & ta ^ t'he lae, drag him out of the water; ^ puh takiii, not of great importance, no matter; jg -£ H ta shir nio|5hkm, deem ofno^coiisequencQ; 4j ^ ta chang, to fight.

^ Lae^ coma is used in Vcirious wija as an auxilia- ry, hut commonly following the verb: ES ^ ^ ^t tso j^jjb las, could not do il; ^^ ^ jj* j&h tih lait, come entar,:^ ^ lung lae, ayproadb •; £ g lae taou, arrive ; -^L ^. w^ng lae, going 3Bdcomipg^mterc<Jtirs^ ^^ "teen lae, wanted to draw forth his sword , na shwuy lae. bring water here:j|| £ ^ siibo !ae, tsk^ « look at a bocik'^-^ ^ tf ^ Che k'Ke'y^ih lac tahc un the -— --i %-* -—

£4 AUXILIARIES. CHAP. V,

k'huh *»eattg H he lae, began to weep; |& shw&

k'he!ae\ *>£#**>* talking; (^ jjt k'he lae, generally naea & t#-comm*oce;) & ^ ch'hiih lae, go out; ^ $} $£ na ch'huh iae, take it but;^ $£ $ jfc mug tlia chlmh lae, bring him out. It is often used as an ad- verb, er adjective; as^ $[, yuen lae, originally, now, placed at the begma ing of sentences, that explain the foregoing: as ^ •$£ 5C tsung iae puh, or^ ^L -& tsung lae woo, never ^ ^l ts&n Isc, the above fre- quently in edicts : ^ ^ how Ise, afterwards; $t ^ JjJ ^ tsung kin e lae, henceforward;^ j3| lae t'how, origin; j^ j|| lae leih, hi^torj, state, circumstan- ces, particulars, ,$JL ^ J|| woo lae leih, no foundation, no truth, unaccountable; Jt 4} Icie yew. c^use. yarfeii- |^r*; i ^t B woo lae j3i, for tjiese five days; ^ |^

^ ^fc Ji yew sze ^° *ae y11^' moj^. *han four months ago; j^^ lae jKh, next day; ^ ^ tseang lae, in future,

3» K*heu^ to go: as ^ ^ lae k'hcw, tQ go and corae , ife ife ^ *i" *e»ng lae seang k'heu, io ponder; ^ ^ ^ ^- shw^S lae shwft k*heu, to talk over a .matter; ^ J£- £ seaou piih k'heu, unsaleable, cannot fee sold; 51 ^ chlmh k'heu, go out; .3&-i tsm k'heu, o> jfec •^ juh klieu/to enter; ^ ^ le k'heu, or ^ ^ ^ ie k'hae k'heu, to leave, to separate 4 J^.^- kwo k'heu, to pass aw4<ty;"& ^ iuy k'heu, to retire, to retreat- ^

^*na k :.cu,to take away; 'fr |f 4^ »a pwau k'hei^ ^-ke away the dish; (the object, as in the case of ^ lae, is sometimes placed between the two verbs:] ^ Jfe ~£? keang tih k'heu, it can be said; H ^ ^ keang j>uh k'heu, it cannot b§ said; i ^fe k'faeutsew, to re- cede and approach, twa oppc&itcs; j^ $- k'heu she, to

le*Ve the world, *o dxf»f#;?^F ^'^eu n^ell» ^ast Jear; ^ ^ k'heu how, afte^waKls.

^r T'hae, to wait, stands in our acceptation of the word in conversation, apparently without any meaning:

as ^ jj^F 3i- £| i , rao f fcae yaou shwo lae, just as I

speL:

y6 fha^aou puh k neu, gno y5 i'hat-

yaou k'heu, 1 wish apt to gc, and yet I wisk tQ go xsg

CHAP. V, AritiLlA¥UE6, 85

v Ian fhaek'heih, having no appetite; gi\o k^heu t'hfce lae, I went and am come again; *JE $S£ i^- *>e fhae yaou fhan hae, do you wish tc fathom the sea? This word is used in many i&ber in- stances, and is generally fallowed by-f| yaou. -ft Kan, to dare: g -$t k'he kan, how dare? Fol- lowed byjjc she, it means perhaps, I guess; as *$L ?k ^f\ jji ika& she puh lae, perhaps he will not come;^ Jt^ Jill ^ ^an s^e P been gno, I guess he has deceived me:' or join fe»jff pa: as^ *fa ^ %Q ^ )& ^ kaa pa f»uh che taou sin tsing, perhaps h»ehas no knowledge of my love.

If lAing, means to play, and trifle, er to effect in a had sense, and is variously used: as ^ j& ^t ^ ^ lung t'ha woo nae ho, he brought him into difficulties; || ^ ^ ^ mae lung show ^wan, to show off one's cleverness; ^ JjjjL lunghwae, to spoil; If ~jjf lung yew, to lead astray : and so on in many other instances.

$3 Pa, alone; or joined to $£ k'hung, or preceded by *•+ chih, indicates a probability: as ^ >{& ^ ^ Ip k'hung pa we k*he shin, he has perhaps not yet risen; *lfi 3§[ T11 -fj- Pa taou Pua ^5 we s^a^ probably not be able to reach the pkce,^ >f& 3t ^1 ^. T chih pa foo ts'hin sze leaou, the father is probably dead,

^ King, occurs frequently in the sense of do^ and many times in a way which appears untranslatable; as "-fj- ^-hingjoo, to order ;^ -jj;^ 4JT yen hing cha na, to institute severe investigation and seizure; gp ^ jj& ^ tscih bing neen wkn, to institute immediate search; tf ^ hing tseang, to bestow praise.

9. Among the auxiliaries may be enumerated #| i^na; pif k'ho, "^ ts'hing,^hew,Jfef pe^. fy N^ng, is -used in the sense of cnn, may, able, to do; as ^g f^ aang ts6,can do; ^ ^ nang seay, can write; % ^ ^- yew n&ng hing, able to do; ^ ^ ^ g t^f kepuh o^ng tsze poo, beco^ild v.^-t feed himself when hungry

?T K'ho, in the sen-se of may, or can: as Jl ^T ^ 0 ^> ^ 0 IF ^ih k'ho tung k'how, puh k'ho tung show, you may spe*]*, but you must ut)t act: i e, scotdv but apt beat; fe ^ >j ye w to pdh k'ho, why rrot^

86 AUXILIARIES CHAP. V

?f 1& k'ho few, or in conversation *f M k'bomo, eau it be4? and now and then;~*!f ^ k'hoshe, may ftbe?i^ *? ,^-lif twan hoo puh k 'ho, on no account Often when standing before verbs, it gives them the adjective signification : as W *j£ fc'ho.gac. car, beloved, amiable; -if & k'ho MB, hatefiu Salable ;1?" Ji k'ho keen, it is evident; "S" i|~ 41 /£• •% i^-V^c yaw shin mo i»Bg keu, \vhat pi oofs are there, fr t; -gr *$| yew k'ho a-vv^y chow, could anything he so aete^tatee; ^ A ^ k'lbo jin e,s*ieh as people would iike. It often indi- the imperative: asyfr "5" ;li ^ ^ ^ joo k'ho ua i:ha lae, go and fetch some tea; #£ pj ^ ; ni? k'hc tso yih tso, sit a wttik, 1J J#. k'hc- e^ ^f El|! ^Jk bo eh wo k, .fflay gain m<«iey; r/. t)»e ead of sentences "if 3t£ k 'he ray. means that any- thing is practicable or admissible; as j£ $% *f $L bhihyenVho yay, it is allowable to saiokej^ if k'ho k'ho, just &at In conversation & If se&ou k'ho, "trif- ling; H Jf> ^T wo° P^n kjho, most certabily.

-f| Tsing, in the sense of to ask, request, is often used by the polite Chinese to express the imperative : sa ~f| 4j£ tsing tso, pray sit down, ^ ^ ^S!Rg I^e, pray came, || $j tsing w^n, I beg to enquire; "^ ^| ^ — ^ tding pe k'han f ih k'han. let me have a lof/k,

^ Hew, meaning to cause, to r^4 to leave off: an d -$} P6^^ to ^e l6*^ °f» are often used tr> indicate the negative imperative: as ^ || 7^ ? hrv>- yaoii wang , do not forget; ^ >{f} ^ hew 14 ?ie, do not fear - ^ ^fe hew tih kwo keen, do'nt be too &. ^t ife' It 'ffc ^w keaou fha .seaou hwa, «3o not let him make gam<; talk; jg[ J| ^ ^ |>^ yaoii sac cho, do n^, believe: ££ ^ ^ J^ j^ peS yaou c^iV7A, da not teilit

10. The ibliowiog^ w«a,-J| pa, ^ t^ii, kwti, ^ yih, ^ peBi, and ja£ ching> are all words descriptive of the past tense; as -done} finished, &e.

ThuH ^ ^ keatig -wan, having said; ^ ^ wsm pan, having maoagM ; jt H WTO p^% fu% prepared^ complete;^ ^ wan

CHAP. V. AUXILIARIES

3H Thing pa, having heard ;-|| T pa leaou, done, made an end of ; 3f H chih pa, dismis^d: ^ ^Q pa she, to desist from the examination;!! ^ pa she, shut the market; ^ X pa km g, lea^e off wori. Jt H Tsinsha, killed them all; ^ ^L tste too, ex- tirpate tfe whole ; ^ ^ ^ $t IT pisg tsiih keae e*n- tei!.», m<? soldiers were all killed; ^ |£ shih tsin, Living eaten the whole.

*J?l Kwoytopass, ?;xceed, is used in combination;

thus j£ ill sbih kwos hsvfatf vi ~j ^ U kwc

Uaou 5€k> jih^ having ph-s*ed several feys; ^ ^> M"

>^ pe t'ha mwan kwo, was deceived by him, jj?- ^

^ -^ pub kwo pwan ncen-, uot more than half "a year,

^L Yih. to come to a close, to slop, is thus combined: as -^ lisan yih, having scattered: — 3} ^f tt yih taou tsan yih, with one blow he cut off his head; f^ ^ M Sfe ho yflfcts&e cher how has it come to this; ^ *|£ yen yih, haviiig done speaking.

^ Peib, to terminate, is thus joined with othe? terms: as |£ J^ hv;apeih, having finished speaking; ^ ^ yuenpeih, having expressed a wish; — ^ jj§ X ^P }ib n^en UT*k kung peib, within a year the work was finufned; j|~ ^ tsir?. peih, having completed.

^ Ching, to perfect, is thus used : as $ $t ching cho, finished doing it; $r; ^ ching keaou, finished the intercourse; JGJf ^ >fe ciiit'g puh k'he, weuld not ef- fect; ]$ i4 chiug tsaou, fully constructed.

1 1. Those which follow jg show,^ keen, ^ tsaoa, ff ling, and p£t kih, are words that frequently describe ihe passive. Thus ^sho^, no receive, J£ §* show hae, to be injured; $ •$$- show juh, ta be i^sulied; % ^ show dioo, tx> be killed;^: ^Hj shcwhl:ir? or f; ^ ebow tsuy, to be punished,

JL Keen, to sec: asj? ^ keen seaou, to be laughed aty or laughable ;J£ ^ ke^uieaBg, to be excused; JJi % keen sew, to be ashamed ;J£, ^ keen k'he, to be re- jected; X JL f£ ^ puh keen hwau pe, not to us delighted,

gf Tsaou, to meet: as if % |[ tsaou k'biu hwos to be ;£eJHged ; ?ft ^ tsaou. t-sib wei, to be environed

6 SUBSTANTITE VERBS, CHAP. V.

by the rebels; y| >£f tsacw <*r to be beaten. \IL Yu, which means also u> meet, it frequently used in the same manner: as \!L b|f ^ -^ ^ yu kwan rhe life tsco, to &e oppresses! by the Mandarins.

^ff Ling, to receive, is sometimes used in the passive sense: as ^gj f^li&g joo, to receive commands, to he or- dered; *rji ^ lin<£ kaou, to be instructed.

ft* Keih, to eat, is thus used in a few instances; as ^ — ^ keih yih king, to be astonished; tfLJjtj keifc kwei, to be injured; &£ ^ 1^ ^ keih sin shew koo. to suffer distress. % Wei, to be, sometiH>eo assuaies thf passive form: as ^ ^ ^ ^ wei t'ha so hae, injuyfed by him.

12. ^F Tseang, to take, is frequently used in sen- tences wlrere it is scarcely translatable: as ^ Jfa- ^ "^ ^ A tseaag ko tsiug shwo yih peen, he gave a detail of the whole :$£ ^fc T ^ tee^ a'Jba hea yo/ he put him in prison; 4$p ^ ^ ^ tseang tseen keaou fha, pay him the money ;^ ^ — SJ| ^ ^ tseang jooydb taou chaou luh, to transcribe an order; $£ \^ ;£ ~F J? >^ tseang peen t'heen hea sin ciie,&ought foj him in the whole Empire. ( )ften, however, it is used to Indicate the ftitee tense: as 7^ ^tseang tso, wil] d°;^ M tseang seay, will write; % J^ f9" ^. tseang yo ho wang, where are you going ?^J- $f *- £ kt iseaug gan ch'bfih, which way shall we carry out the plan; % $f ^r i % woo tseang nae ho, what shall i do: ^ ^ tseang* lae. hereafter, in future ; $f- ^C ^ang keih, almost, nearly ;4j| ^c ^ $fc tseang tsze wan keaou, Laving near!? paid the wh>ie; -^ j£ E >f v^ tseang kin sr.n feang she, about the third watch.

SUBSTANTIVE VERBS,

13. They are the following: ^ yew, ^ nae, ff ke.. ^ wei, ^ she, and JL tsae.

^ \>w, there is, also to have: as ^ A ^ Yew Pa shwd, there are some who say; ^ |fr yC U yew "huenjuh k'how, there are setne vjessete tb^t have en-

CHAP V. SUBSTANTIVE VEKBS. 89

tercel the harbour; $r % %jr £ so yew hing le, the baggage that was there ; A % ^- *j| ye* yfw how tsing, there was a strong affection; ^ ^ -f -*F kin yew shih neen, it is now teir years ago; £ -fe % 4£ wei ehe yew yay, there never has been.

In the signification of have it occurs in w frequent- ly: a$^ || A ^ ^ yew tseen, jin ke&e lung, if you have money, all peeple will respect you;^ f yew $ze> have business, occupied ;>^ J^ yew woo, have or cot have ; the former is the positive, the latter the negative verb substantive :$ ft & jfc fl yew jih sze woi> jih, >vhca you are in possession of anything, think on the day when you will have it not; ^ ^ yew le> it has sonv- reason, or it is? reasoimble:^ ^ yew le, to have politeness, to be polite; ^ 5% yew been, to have limits, afew;ifc ^ yew soo, to have a number, several; *3t ^" wun yew^havc wot; in conversation ^ % we yew5 not yet have. It fa also used to indicate the past tense; as |f Jfc yew \eang, they hava said; $&$%<$* king yew ehih Ibg, he lias already ordered it.

^ Nae, is used th&s; jft ^ A gtio »ae jin, I am a *nan;75 Jt ^ naeta 1160. he was greatly incensed ; ^ 3j T $ *?na nae ^^a ^eu? ^e was dismounting from the carriage;^. A 7^ ^ 3JL "$' urh jin pC?h fuh yen. the two men did not speak agaio.

^ He, occurs in the following connection: as -g A he haou jin, he is a good man; J} ^ j| y^ heleangkew,itislongago^J^ ^ ill $£ *£ 3 we he tung sze ehe taou loo, it is the way to lie with him j& >$? ^ ^ woo so he wee, there is no property.

^ Wei has a great variety of sigoific^tkms: is ^ J^ wci)m., to be a man, or to aet the man;.^ )>5? jg. Jb wei jcih woo wei, it must be done;|||.^ nan wei, to make difficult, to atmoy;^[ ^ yew v/oi to h;we any- thing to do1 ig. '§ woo wei, ta have nothing to do. It is sorcetimc .-: coimeeted with >1 e, to cou^ider, tc view: as W ^ "¥ A. e we* »hing jin, to coiwider him iis a sage. It is often used to indicate the pas^tvc: AS 3| A

^)f ^ wei jin so ban, to be hated by rn*>n : ^ jjg ^ ^ wei chungf so sin. to be believed bv iiil;, g -g $^

90 VARIOUS CLASSES OF VFBBS CHAP. V.

wei sih fcv me, M awa) by lust (See also the Prepo* sitions.) ^, She, ib thus employed: asJe Jl ^r she hwaiig ^e, it Is the Emperor, Jfi ^ -iP J& pub she joo tszc. it is not thus 5^ j|i] ~£ ^ shetsih yen she, when it is so. say that it is so; Jg ^fr ^- jo she hoo, is it thus *? ?ll^C i% & ^ she ching ho sin hoo, indeed what heart is this !

$L Tsae, is thus <ombined: 7\i ^ -fe- t'ha yew tsac, he is there :^ JL puh tsae, he is absent; 3£ ^ jjp ^g foo tsae i\a !e, where .'bcs the fit' er ^ivrclit ^- >fL Q ^ sze tsae muh t«een? the busmess is before your eyes, present;^ ^ ^ tsae bug meen, to be in one's presence; Is 4§L tS2etsae,tobeone?^:rMf; ",f- & J^ T. puh tsae hwa hea, need not be told. It ought to he remarked, thai $L tsae, always indicates the place of be- ing in, (See also the Prepositions.)

Notwithstanding the variety of these verb*, thr nrp often left out where our laneuage would veqi --;- ;

^ 4 H A gnto chimg *«i*v6jiB, 1 am a Chinese.

VARIOUS CLASSES OF VERBS.

1 c The distinction we draw between the neuter

and active verbs does not, from the nature of the Ian-

^e, sxistim Chinese; in a few instances, however,

mark « Is \vritlen above the w or a > indicate its hav^

ipg adopted aa active- signification.

15 The passive, as we have already remarked is indicated by J^ keen -^£ show, }A tsaou, and other *rerfcs. Besides these forrna we may ?ti}l mark the fol- b^ing &1fc A k'he yii jio, or,^ J A k'heyujin, pised by men. So sko ^ 5t ^ "l>?! nr»nng ke keaoa i^un, taught by him, ^ j: ^ ^ rnung ke paoa hoo, protecte i by hinic

^ ?e, is also frequently used 111 tiiis sense: as^ S ^ 3^ Pe mow sn^ cnfc *iH^d fay some body ; ^ W. ? i®r ^ P^ Iwan keun &o sha. killed by the re- nous army; ^ ^ ^ tsin pe sl^ou, entirely &m*t; Pc fJr tseang t&o, pttrced with oae

C'HAP. V, MOODS. 91

tornit of the spear;)*, ^1 W~ tfc 3 ~& fan pc t'hs shwoleaou gno, on the co'Ttrary it was told me by binr So also $b yewvawd occasionally @ vin: as t& 1$L JIQ vew t/hu k'ha' ^h£, esUliibhod by him: g] 3L || yin heung pa lurig, denied l^ ti<\ b- T*1 Kiay

weii also to notice phrases like the following: .A. M ^§ jini yew woo teih, or A iSf ^ ^ j^ so heen chay, hated or detested by men; *pj~ >^ ,^£ ^" ^ J\» k'ho lecn wang kaoush^jin, the man H'UO £S falsely accused and killed, is to be pitied; |ft $f f^. shwuy so she che chay, by whom was he scut? ^ ^ she tse^ng teih wuh, these are stoiea ^^; ^' Uoulacchc ho. .stolen articles. 3)5 f& 1^ ;^ heguo tets6 chttv, > done bv

my broiaei

MOODS,

16. The indicative requires no comment, and of conjunctive we have already spoken in the case of *J k'ho, which indicates a possibility or probability; at* W ^ k'ho t&o, it may do; If ^J k'ho hiug, it may be clone

Th^re exist many conditional particles, which circum* scribe the conjunctive Such asjfH joo,^ jo«^ tang:, ?f t!baug4f yoo,^ shg, ^ kow. ^ she, $i Vng, and ^ hwo. To give a distitict idea of their use, w.$ shall exemplify the various modes in which they arc employed.

17. ^ Joo, andj§ j6, are nearly synonymous: as itH ^ ^. J^. joo yew yin tseen, if I had money; j|JI l!f ^ j°° sn°° taou,ifthe letter arrive. They are al» jso combined; as^j 3& £. ]fc joo jo foo sze, if my fa- ther were to die, j£ Jo, is more frequently used than any other, either alone or combined as^fS 31 tang jo,

' J5 she, 4 ft jo kes* .* kwo jo,^ Jfc J6

. tang jo pun ting, if he Jo not listen ;

jo i»bc pfih ching ping> if >he peace be a&l io*uvtauted;

92 MOODS, CRAP; V.

6 fee wan tseun,if it be finished ;& vl; ^5t ^ kwo jo chihfa tsung sze, if incfeed he adhere to the letter of the law and follow' up the busi- •ness; jfe ^ & >£ jo she ch'huh leih, if he exert himself; j£ $; ^p ^ jo jeu k'ha«g tso.ifhe will1 do it; $ 3a % jfc 36 f£ 3$ jo ehay yew sin keu tseue .jjno, if he have a heart to forsake me, ^<* Jcrc, is also •used with 'K kea, to convey an idea of pvoTyiifcility ; as flSL."flfc ;£ ^ ^5 kea joo we lib Ie, f;uppcsiDg you could not make money: -^ ^ kea jen. aHcij^. <^, kea ling, both signify suppose the same idea is conveyed by f^U pe joo, and^ ^ pe jo as^f ^1 T> * $ ^js ^ p€? j^o pulj tseang ke shoo iac, if fee da yet bring the boek;^ ^ T 5 3f> ^f jjt pe J6 kwan ytue;« piib kwan so. if'lhcMandaricg do not restrain him, 18, j^ Tanc^ 3^lH tang, are ^ynouymiK^ : -jfe.- ^ tri^rig fcwd, ai tH^fjf |^ taagjein, CBS^TS ^f; ^ $t ^t Ig, t^g k&a king wet, if you wa to discbey; ^ ^ ^ ^ teogb^dptth&teg-s if he 4o not go:^ ^ ig ^ yf^ X. taugjsttfuh^puhtbg^butif'kappmess fte cerfaki.

.of -sm»y«r iffipcrt^; as

sin iub ujrk koo shew :i>uK just as if owe

cnectal effon., ari<l took otu? to ooe*s feet aod sfewo yoo we leauu, <*re h- had done yoofe*h^ it still may dc;$fjfe ^ f oo jo pah fao piag e as if aot endowed with principles;^ "^ jfc >T -it) "% yoo &be pub e, if perhaps not accotduig- to CKZ -> wfehes, t ' Shg, ^t * *W h v5, md ft Ht ^hfe Ac, are used % the same sense: as H: |f % J~ |i ^bwoye^ tsaa , if iperhaps he have talent,^ it % H ^ ^ s*!ie chimb mun woo s^e, if p*Aaps fee may have gone out and attended to his business. if Kow, bear* the same sense: as if ^ ^p ^ ^ H^ay tsze,ifhedo -not neglect to write: kow £uh jeru if it" be not thu-*; ^ 4f ^ icow ysw che yu tih7 if he have an to virtue

CHAP, V. MOODS. 93

*, is mostly used in connection wiitifJt she, bui sometimes occurs alone- : as{fL-|& pf ^ she >>oo yulo, if it do not rain:^ $t f[ ^ & <fe k*a sh^ hwang te g&n chun, if the Emperor grant it.

$fe Tstimg, or'JK jK feung jen, are to be met with as $t <?*" H f»| -t- ^f tsung kin jih taou pun heang. suppose I were to arrive to day at my native place _. ^ ^ J^- ]tj£ tsungjen shmg teih, suppose he were to > vercomc the enemy,

^f Hwo. and 9g J$ fatr6 chay, perhaps, likely, if may be, bear the same sense: as ft $£ ^ ^ $& hwo jtja hw6 puli jen, it may be so; or it may not be K>: $% J& $. 88 J3 ® ^w^ c^ay shing keen hwuy kwo? he may pss'hapB avail himself of die opportunity and return to his country

19. Words !ike$C kan, ^ iR to k?^,.^C ^ feau ehe;^>]& kau pa, 01 jt ^& chili pa,^ Jf6 kuaa* pa, * ^ ^ Pa P^h ^* ^P ^ and htopah*^ often indicate the conjunctive. (See auxiliary ^eibs j So also !>• ^p to twan, S ^ paois kwan, end ^ ^ kwau femg^ as^- ^ ^ ^L M S, ^/ to frvan we k^ib che woo &etms fei is most likely (he may be) not yet 5ti jests of age, ^ ^ ^ -^ J ^v>^ tsing feew hao-y lts«it«u it m&y b" immediately vtell U ^ %j jfi] ^ PA«XJ yew le ta, he may i>e successful, or it is U&ciy will be successful These forms are e^du&ivelf in conversation.

20 T^ $p Choo fei and J^: ^ choo Eeaou, staaS for i^/a^v as St ^ U| ^fe 1$ ^noofeik'haekinkang, unless you relax the prohibitions $£ Jfe S^ i* jfc. 1& *5~ $L c^lao ^ ^eu tse» ^ e tih teze yay, unless yt»« irvAfry, youc^za have no children;]^: ^ ^ ^ f^ ^ choo ieacu shay te tso wan, unless my yon-ngei brotkei* writs the csoay.

2L Jt f Sho .fbot* ^ shoo ke.#, — snd yih, cccur in the sense of perhaps, as JS. -^ ^ ^ ioo k'hoyay, it may perhaps do ^| H»^? ^ If ^ shoo ke k lie ching tseeu wan^, .he ma\ fciliaps lure gono on liiS journey and proceeded ^ *- )^ ^ yih ching sze, lie may iKjhap* finish the business

SNFINIT1VE. CHAP. V.

Say, although, requires Die conjunctive: as^. -fr suy hing tih, although he practice virtue.

22. We quote still the following modes of convey- ing the sense of the conjunctive Jffc $$ <&, $£ Yuen joo chang show, may you live long; A »F $ * ^ ^ Jf /I -& she k'ho jinyay, shun puhk'ho jin yayt if this can be endured, what cannot be endured '? ^jjt ^ 3fe -.18s "J ^ $5 nan taou gno tso ieaou pub eh ing, is it possible that I could have erred'? ( -^ 3i Nan taou, either with or without ^ jfe puh ching, is thus frequently used, while it is difficult to translate it by a corresponding term in our language.)-^, if . ^g $ ^| "$£ nan taou hwan sze e he giior should she still think about me? ~JJL xj jt ^ JL ^ tfc nan taou nyu yew heung puli ching. can it be that the woman led you astray; -jfc *t ?I ^ * & W 9| Jfc t'ha (*iy tliow t'hat guo yay tuy t how joo, if he might resist hiro, Imitiht also resibt you ?^. j^Alt ^ ^ % fi ke puh tsaou hwa, gno puh i.aog choo, it he laave no luck, I cannot stay;,y% *£* % fa W fc — ^ y'»g e che yew, tseih tsseyih sze, if any bad action were to be de- nounced, it is this, $| ^ J£L '$L %? A >£ ^ che ke mmg, tsew jay jin cheuoov if you were to point out hss uame, you would only incite the anger of ©thers.

INFINITIVE,

23. The Chinese language has no particular way of expressing this mood; thus the forms ^ jj; ig gno i>ae seay, 1 love to write, ^ ffe ^t tsingt'ha iae, request him to come; are a mere juxta-positions of words. If- a stress be laid upon the \vord ^o of our infioitivre, the sen^e is conveyed by $ e, f£ che, and 5t >^l che e: as $i %fc ^sk M % %, gno keih joa e yung cbc, i gave it you to use it}^ ^ ^ ^ 51 ^ 1^ ^voo keaou seang kung che e pe, I called you, Sir, to prepare; 3l

-T S A IL Xt ^ f& keuntszegaejin5cheepoufuh, the superior .man loves mankind, in order to spread hap- s amongst them, ^ ^ ^, *J ^ woo che c i loo.

CHAP. V. IMPERATIVE. 95

cbe, I came to call him; # j, ^L - ~& ebwan t'ha baou, be though? it well to gladden others,

IMPERATIVE

24. To what we have already said, whet) treating of the auxiliary verbs, we may add the following

The Imperative is expressed by^Tfc/ho: as Sfe-^T 3fc ft joo k'ho seen yhi, do you drink first: "5" tt k'ho cL'huh xnniu go out of doors. But tr«is form i* useJ towards inferiors, seldom to equals, and never to superiors; in which latter casefff ts'hing, pray;^ ke. beg: and^ wang, hope; are substituted.

25. To express let, the Chinese employ severs! words: as Jj| -ftfc-f£ t?hing t'ha tso. let him do it; & ^ ^ ^[ ^ 3$ yew tih yangshartg ganpan, let the Hong merchants manage this well; ^ ^ -£ yunggno fe'LeiL let me go;^| ^"^ping t'ha shwo, let him talk:f£ ^^^ j*n foo choo fan, let the woman boil her rice; $L JJL ^ ^ yu ke tsin yay, let him enter; H^f ^ J^. ^ heu tseang cho pwau, let the artisan ex- cavate the rock ; f i ^ $£ %& jin ping k'he ting, let them get up the anchor; /^ ^ Jt ^ chun gno k'he ching,let me goon my journey; ^t it ^ fj- yun che poo hing. let them walk on foot,

26. Often no other term than the simple verb is used to indicate (he Imperative: as ^ ^ ^ "ffe T^tso, gno miDg yu joo, sit down, I shall distinct! y inform? you. A nide manner is sometimes employed by adding $| pa. attheeiid; as^Sc ^ ^ joo k'heu pa, you beoif! go asvay ! Whilst on the other hand, the ; >< 4 bins; happy, fortunate, adds urbanity to the eipre^lc*: : as Jife ^ ?4 ^ ^ ^ show shih po le hing e, recrive my trillii)g' present: %= & $&J& 3$ hing \\oo keu tsei)egno, do not reject mc;^ ^ hing t'hing, listen.

27. JL Tseay5 is very frequently used to indicate the imperative-: as y£ jt ^ n joo te&iy keen k'how, do you be silent: A %& ^ •£ t hing ming k'heu, let us hear the orders a^d b< ^f r olio wed by a negative

95 THE PARTICIPLE. CHAF, V.

it signifies do not: as JL ^C ^f -}4 tseaypuh k'hotein. do not enter; JL J| ^ ^j-tseay mo so hing, don't go so fast.

28 Of'fk hew, und^ pee1, we have already spo-