(Jl VOLUME XXXVIII JULY-DEC,, 1920 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE FED INDEX July to December, 1920 VOLUME XXXVIII PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. [$3.50 A , 1920 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY GEOGRAPHIC ADMINISTRATION BUILDINGS SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. GILBERT GROSVENOR, President HENRY WHITE, Vice-President JOHN JOY EDSON, Treasurer O. P. AUSTIN, Secretary BOYD TAYLOR, Assistant Treasurer GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, Associate Secretary FREDERICK V. COVILLK, Chairman Committee on Research EDWIN P. GROSVENOR, General Counsel EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE, Associate Editor WILLIAM T. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES FRANKLIN ' L. FISHER Assistant Editor Assistant Editor Chief of Illustrations Division BOARD OF TRUSTEES CHARLES T. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JOHN JOY EDSON Chairman of the Board, Wash- ington Loan & Trust Company DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Ex- plorations, U. S. Department of Agriculture C. HART MERRIAM Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. AUSTIN Statistician GEORGE R. PUTNAM Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 30 Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress.'Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-game Photographer GRANT SQUIRES Military Intelligence Division, General Staff, New York T. L. MACDONALD M. D., F. A. C. S. 3. N. D. NORTH Formerly Director U. S. Bureau JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE, Associate Editor National Geo- graphic Magazine. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. HOWARD GORE Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major General U. S. Army GILBERT GROSVENOR Editor of National Geographic Magazine ROBT. E. PEARY (Died Feb. 20) Discoverer of the North Pole, Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy GEORGE OTIS SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. II. TITTMANN Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey HENRY WHITE Member American Peace Com- mission, and Recently U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. ORGANIZED FOR "THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE" To carry out the purpose for which it was founded thirty-three years ago, the National Geographic So- ciety publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itselt or ex- pended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Magazine can use, gener- ous remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelop and post- age, and be addressed: Editor, National Geographic Magazine, i6th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Important contributions to geographic science are constantly being made thiough expeditions financed by funds set aside from the Society's income. For example, immediately after the terrific eruption of the world's largest crater, Mt. Katmai, in Alaska, a National Geographic Society expedition was sent to make observations of this remarkable phenomenon. So important was the completion of this work considered that four expeditions have followed and the extraordinary scientific data resultant given to the world. In this vicinity an eighth wonder of the world was discovered and explored — "The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes." a vast area of steaming, spouting fissures, evidently formed by nature as a huge safety-valve for erupting Katmai. By proclamation of the President of the United States, this area has been created a National Monument. The Society organized and supported a large party, which made a three-year study of Alaskan glacial fields, the most remarkable in existence. At an expense of over $50,000 it has sent a notable series of expeditions into Peru to investigate the traces of the Inca race. The discoveries of these expeditions form a large share of the world's knowledge of a civilization which was waning when Pizarro first set foot in Peru. Trained geologists were sent to Mt. Pelee, La Soufriere, and Messina following the eruptions and earthquakes. The Society also had the honor of subscribing a substantial sum to the historic expedition of Admiral Peary, who discovered the North Pole April 6, 1909. Not long ago the Society granted $.?o.ooo to the Federal Government when the congressional appropriation for the purchase was insufficient, and the finest of the giant sequoia trees of California were thereby saved for the American people and incorporated into a National Park. Copyright, 1921, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. CONTENTS PAGE Along Our Side of the Mexican Border. By FREDERICK SIMPICH 61 American Birds of Prey — A Review of Their Value , 460 Antioch the Glorious. By WILLIAM H. HALL 81 Channel Islands, The: Bits of France Picked up by England, Whose History is Linked With That of America. By EDITH CAREY 142 Charm of Cape Breton Island: The Most Picturesque Portion of Canada's Maritime Provinces — A Land Rich in Historic Associations, Natural Resources, and Geo- graphic Appeal. By CATHERINE DUNLOP MACKENZIE 34 China. Color insert. XVI plates 375 Cuba — The Sugar Mill of the Antilles. By WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER i Eden of the Flowery Republic, The. By DR. JOSEPH BEECH 355 Facial Expressions. Black and White insert. XVI plates 285 Falconry. Color insert. XII plates 441 Falconry, the Sport of Kings : Once the Means of Supplying Man's Necessities, It Has Survived the Centuries as One of the Most Romantic Pastimes of History. By Louis AGASSIZ FUERTES 429 Glimpses of Siberia, The Russian "Wild East." By CODY MARSH 512 Haiti and Its Regeneration by the United States 497 Haiti, the Home of Twin Republics. By SIR HARRY JOHNSTON 483 Human Emotion Recorded by Photography. By RALPH A. GRAVES 284 Kaieteur and Roraima, the Great Falls and the Great Mountain of the Guianas. By HENRY EDWARD CRAMPTON 227 Little-Known Marvel of the Western Hemisphere, A : Christophe's Citadel, A Monu- ment to the Tyranny and Genius of Haiti's King of Slaves. By MAJOR G. H. OSTERHOUT, JR., U. S. M. C 468 Making of a Japanese Newspaper, The. By DR. THOMAS E. GREEN 327 "Man in the Street" in China, The: Some Characteristics of the Greatest Undeveloped Market in the World of Today. By GUY MAGEE, JR 406 Nepal : A Little-Known Kingdom. By JOHN CLAUDE WHITE 245 Niagaras of Five Continents, The. Duotone insert. XVI plates 211 Origin of American State Names, The. By FREDERICK W. LAWRENCE 104 Peking, the City of the Unexpected. By JAMES ARTHUR MULLER 335 Rio de Janeiro, in the Land of Lure. By HARRIET CHALMERS ADAMS 165 Shifting Scenes on the Stage of New China 423 Tahiti : A Playground of Nature. By PAUL GOODING 301 World's Ancient Porcelain Center, The. By FRANK B. LENZ 3Qi WASHINGTON, D. C. PRESS 01- JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. IQ20 INDEX FOR VOL. XXXVIII (JULY-DECEMBER), 1920 AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX. ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES AND INSERTS 'A" Page Aborigines, Haiti, West Indies 483 Aborigines, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 Academy of Bellas Artes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 187; text 195 Accipiters (Hawks) 431, 461 Achimatipu, Brazil 237 Ackawoi tribe, British Guiana 233 Acrobats, China ill. 410; text 416-417 Adams, Harriet Chalmers. Rio de Janeiro, In the Land of Lure 165 ^gean Sea 83 Aerial Experiment Association 50 Aerial ropeway, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 183; text 182, 184, 210 Aerial views, Miami, Fla ill. 115 Aerial views, New York, N. Y ill. 106-107 Aerial views, Philadelphia, Pa ill. 109 Aerial views, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 184 Aeroplane flight from Stamford, Conn., to Mineola, L. I ..ill. 11-5 Msop: Wolf! Wolf! 351 Africa (duotone insert) Plate I, IV, 211-226; text 143, 171, 175, 227, 429; (color insert) Plate IX, XI, 441-456, 499 African affinity, An (black and white insert) Plate XIII, 285-300; text 284 Agriculture, China 420 Agriculture, Nepal, Asia 283 Agriculture, Siberia 512, 521,533 Agriculture, Sze-chuan, China 364, 369, 371 Agua, Prieta, Mexico 67, 71, 80 Ah-hee-oo-ba: Meaning of name 129 Ajo, Mexico 75 Alabama: Origin and meaning of name 125, 129 Alaska text 5, 33; (black and white insert) Plate XII, 211-226 Albuquerque, N. Mex 1 1 1 Alderney, Channel Islands, English Channel, .ill. 145; text 143, 154, 161, 163 Aleppo, Syria 81, 83, 88, 90, 92 Alexander the Great: Reference to 423 Alexandretta, Syria 81, 89-90 Alexandria, Egypt 103 Alexis, Nord : Reference to 496 Algerian falconer, Biskra, North Af rica . . . . text ; (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456 Ali Baba : Forty Thieves 401 Allied expeditions, Siberia 525,531 Allied High Command: Presentation of a Cape Breton Highlander to the 40 ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER. BY FREDERICK SIMPICH 61 Alps, Sze-chuan, China 363 Altar of Heaven, Temple of Heaven, Peking, Cbina ill. 348 Altar utensils, Talung Monastery, Sikkim, Asia ill. 255 Alves Branco, President Manoel: Mention of 190 Amador, Rafael: Journey from Mexico City to Monterey 73 Amatuk, British Guiana 230 Amazon River 238, 241 AMERICAN BIRDS OF PREY— A REVIEW OF THEIR VALUE 460 American Museum of Natural History, Dept. of Invertebrate Zoology 227 American Protestant Episcopal Church, Ching- teh-chen, China 399 American Revolution 37 American State Names, The Origin of. By Frederick W. Lawrence 1 04 Andes 227, 231 Andrada e Silva, Jose Bonifacio de: Reference to 201 Andrade, Gomes Freire de: Reference to 191 Andros, Sir Edmund: Reference to 151, 154 Andros, Thomas: Mention of 151 Anfu Club, China 426-428 Page Angara River, Siberia 528 Anglo-French Punitive Expedition of 1860 353 Angus McAskill, see McAskill, Angus. Angus the Ox: Story of 60 An£we!' Pin.a • • • • 393, 399, 4<>5 Anhwei Province, China 426 Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada: Fruit growing 53 Annisquam, Mass.: Breast-works of sand ill. 130 Anselmo: Mention of m Antarctic circles 43 1 Ant-bears (Myrmecophago jubatd) British Guiana ill. 244; text 241 Antigonia, Syria 84-85 Antilla, Cuba 11 Antilles 227 Antilles: Cuba— The Sugar Mill of the. By William Joseph Showalter i Antilles, Greater, West Indies 497 Antilles, Lesser, West Indies 227 Antinous : Reference to 367 Antioch, Syria: Plan of 88-89 Antioch, Syria: Size of 93 ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS. BY WILLIAM H. HALL 81 Antiochus Epiphanes, see Antiochus IV. Antiochus I: Reference to 88 Antiochus III: Reference to 89, 102 Antiochus IV: Reference to 85, 89, 99, 102-103 Aorai, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 302 Apache Indians 69, 71, 74 Apache Indians, Arizona 1 29 Apache Indians, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 185, 191 "Apache Kid": Chiricahuas led by the 69 Apalachicola, ^ Fla 119 Apamea, Syria 84 Apollo: Reference to 85, 91, 93, 99-100 Apollo, Temple of, Daphne, Syria 99 Arabian Nights 401, 478 Arabs setting out falcons to course gazelles (color insert) Plate VIII, 441-456 Architecture, China 263 Architecture, Egypt 254 Architecture, Nepal, Asia ill. 246, 250, 254, 258, 260-262, 264, 269, 277, 281-282; text 251, 263 Architecture, Peking, China 337, 34*. 35* Architecture, Russian 533 Archeology, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 150, 152-153; text 143, M7 Archway, Sark, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 146 Arctic 431 Arecunas, British Guiana ill. 240; text 241, 243 Argentina text 33, 199-200; (duotone insert) Plate III, 21 T, 226 Arizona ..ill. 140; text 61, 63, 74-75, 77, 80, TIT, 129 Arizona: Origin and meaning of the name.. 133, 140- 141 Arizona Kicker (Newspaper) 71 Arkansas: Origin and meaning of the name.. 132, 139 Army, China 426-427 Army, Nepal, Asia 283 Art, Nepal, Asia ill. 246, 248, 250, 255, 258, 260. 269,275,281-282; text 263, 271-272, 280 Art Institute, Chicago, 111 ill. 136 Artibonite River, Haiti, West Indies 485 Artistry of the Border States, Asia.. ill. 278; text 272 Artists, Channel Islands, English Channel 155 Artists, Ching-teh-chen, China: Decorative ill. 398 Asia 171, 368; text (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456 Asia Minor 83, 102 Asia: Nepal, A Little- Known Kingdom. By John Claude White 245 Aspy Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 57 Assam, Asia 245, 280 Assuan Dam, Nile River, Egypt 65 Astronomical instruments, Peking, China ill. 346 VI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Atlantic City, N. J.: Boardwalk ............. ill. no Atlantic Ocean ............................... 5 Asturias, Spain .............................. *9 Augustc, Tancrede: Reference to ............... 503 Aura, Agua, Meaning of name ................. 119 Australia ............................. 33, '43, 301 Austringer (A user of goshawks and sparrow- hawks) .................................. 433 Automobiles, Havana, Cuba: Ford ............. 15-16 Automobiles, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ... 193, 205, 210 Automobiles, Siberia ... ill. 523, 529; text 521, 525 Avenida Atlantica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. .. 168, 172, 176, 1 80, 191 Avenida Central, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, see Avenida Rio Brancp, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Avenida Niemeyer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ---- ill. 172, 208 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. ill. 187, 190, 192-193; text 205 Aztecs " ....................................... 133 Babel ........................................ 246 Babylonia Mountain, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ..... 191 Bab-El-Hadid, Antioch, Syria ................ ill. 88 Babies, Havana, Cuba: Repository for .......... 33 Baddeck Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada .......................... ill. 36 ; text 50 Baddeck, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 36; text 47, 53 Baddeck River, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada .................................... 53 Bagdad, Mesopotamia . ...................... 65, 81 Bagdad Railway ............................ 81, 90 Bahama Islands: Map of Cuba and.... ill. (map) 4 Bahama Islands, West Indies: Turkey-buzzards.. 492 Bahia, Brazil ............................. 185, 191 Baghmutti River, Nepal, Asia.. ill. 257, 264; text 259, 274, 283 Baghmutti Valley, Nepal, Asia ................. 245 "Back of Man," China ............. ill. 360; text 369 Halajee, Nepal, Asia: Water garden of ...... ill. 265; text 259, 262 Baldwin, F. W. : Aerial experiments ............ 50 Baldwin, F. W. : Hydrodrome boats ............ 50 Bamboo cable, China ........................ ill. 356 Bamboo, China ...... (color insert) Plate W, 375-390 Bandits, Haiti, West Indies. .. .ill. 500; text 499-501, 503, 505-507 Banning, Calif ................................ 77 Bantor tribe, Nepal, Asia ...................... 249 Barao de Petropolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ...... 201 Barnabas, Apostle : Mention of . .............. 83, 95 Barnegat Beach, N. J .......................... 5 Barra Island, Scotland: Descendants of ........ 40 Barracks, Vladivostok, Siberia .............. 514,525 Bartlett, John: Mention of ..................... 73 Baseball, Japan ................... ill. 333; text 329 Baskets, British Guiana: Native .............. ill. 231 Basque Provinces, Spain: Fishermen of ......... 34 Battery Park, New York: Airplane view of... ill. 106 Battle of Ipsus ................................ 83 Bay of Alexandretta, Syria .................. ill. 90 Bay of Fundy, Canada ........................ 60 Bay of Guanabara, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. 165, 182, 185 Bay of Neiba, Santo Domingo, West Indies ..... 485 Bay of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil .................. 185 Bazaars, Peking, China .................... 349, 407 Beaches, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ............. ill, 176; text 168, 174, 191 Beacon towers near Peking, China: Legend of the 351 Beale, Lieut. Edward P.: Camels used in trans- portation work ............................ 65, 73 Beauvoir, Peter de: Mention of ................ 149 Beech, Dr. Joseph. The Eden of the Flowery Republic ................................... 355 Beinn Bhreagh, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada .................... ill. 36; text 47, 49-So Beinn Bhreagh Laboratory, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada .................... 47, 49-50 Beira Mar Drive, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ..... ill. 177, 187; text 175, 1 80 Beirut, Syria ................................ 374 Belgium ..................................... 105 Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham.. ill. 41, 45, 59; text 38, 4i, 43-45, 47. 49-50 Page Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham: Hydrodrome boats ill. 47-49; text 50 Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham: Laboratories of.. 47. 50 Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham: President of the National Geographic Society 47 Bell, Mrs. Mabel Gardiner: Aerial Experiment Association financed by 5° Bell, Mrs. Mabel Gardiner: Photograph of ill. 41 Belle Isle, Strait of, Newfoundland 60 Beirut, Syria: Harbor of ill. 92 Ben Hur: Reference to 81, 83 Benares, British India 259 Senegal, British India 24, 279 Benoit: Reference to 509 Berlin, Germany: Japanese newspaper correspond- ents 334 Bert: Treatise of Hawks and Hawking 433 Bewit (A light strap) ill. 430 Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia ill. 250, 260, 282; text 255, 368, 271, 283 Bhutan, Asia 245, 263, 272, 278, 280 Bichiakoh, Nepal, Asia 247 "Big Mins" with gas mask (black and white insert) Plate IX, 285-300 "Bigger than a Wuxtry!" (black and white insert) Plate VIII, 285-300 Bill-posters, China ill. 4*9 Billumbiques, or Fiat money 80 Bim Sens Tower, Nepal, Asia 251 Bimphidi, Nepal, Asia 247 Birds, Brazil 170,173 Birds, Haiti, West Indies 487, 491-492 Birds, Jamaica, West Indies 487 Birds, Mexican border 75 Birds of Prey, American— A Review of Their Value 460 Birds, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 173 Birdwood, Sir George: Quotation from 251 Bisbee, Ariz 69, 71 Biskra, Africa: Algerian falconer (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456 Black, John: Reference to 327 "Black Lady" (Falcon) 440 Black River, Syria 88 Blackbirds., .(color insert) Plate X, 441-456; text 460 Blacksmiths, China ill. 418 Black Sea 251 Blampied: Mention of 155 "Blanche" (Sparrow-hawk) 440 "Blimp Route" between Miami, Fla., and Havana, Cuba ii Block, Adrian: Rhode Island named by 106 Blocks and perches for weathering hawks ill. 437 Blue Grass State, see Kentucky. Blue Mountains, Jamaica, West Indies 485 Boardwalk, Atlantic City, N. J ill. no Boat dwellers, Canton, China (color insert) Plate VI, 375-390 Boats, China ill. 351, 356-359, 394; text 393, 396 Bobadella, Count Francisco de: Carioca Aque- duct 189 Bobo, Dr.: Reference to 503, 506-507 "Bois-le-duc" (Falcon) 440, 457 "Boke of St. Albans": Species of hawks 433 Bolsheviks, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 522, 524 Bolshevism, Russia 513, 535-536 Bolshevism, Siberia 520, 522, 532, 535 Bombay, India i Bonnet a L'fiveque, Haiti, West Indies 469, 472- 473, 482 Book of Common Prayer 148 Book of the Maccabees 103 Boone, Daniel: Reference to 129 Boots of Angus McAskill ill. 55 Bordeaux Harbor, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 144 Borderland Highway 71 Borgne, Haiti, West Indies 481 Bosque Redondo 74 Boston, Mass 6, 347 Botafogo Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. . .ill. 177-181; text 169-170, 191 Botanical Gardens, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. .. .194-195 Boucaniers, Haiti, West Indies 483 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de: Reference to 301, 303 Boulder Glacier, Mount Baker, Wash.: Crossing ill. 121 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 VII Page Bouleceet Harbor, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada: Behind the bar ill. 54 Bow-net used in trapping hawks . . (black and white insert) Plate XIV, 441-456; text 434, 436 Boxer indemnity, China 353 Boxer Uprising, China 423 "Boy General," see Gaida. Boynton, Sir Henry: Red Queen 459 Brahmans, Nepal, Asia 249, 269 Brahmaputra Valley, Nepal, Asia 263 Brail (A slit strap for hawks) ill. 430 Brancher (Hawk) 433 Branco River, Brazil 241 Bras d' Or Lakes, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 36, 44, 54; text 46, 49-50, 52-53 Brazil (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226; text 227, 237 Brazil: Rio de Janeiro, In the Land of Lure. By Harriet Chalmers Adams 165 Bread lines, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 520 Bread men, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 175 Breadfruit trees, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 171 Brewster, Texas 65 Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite National Park, Calif. (duotone insert) Plate VII, 211-226 Bridge over the Sungari at Harbin, Manchuria ill. 528 Bridge, Wan-Hsien, Sze-chuan, China (color insert) Plate VIII, 375-39O Bridge west of Chung-king, China: Covered (color insert) Plate XIV, 375'39O Bridges, Sze-chuan, China: Bamboo cable ill. 372 British Columbia, Canada: Emperor Falls (duo- tone insert) Plate XII, 211-226 British Guiana: Kaieteur and Roraima. By Henry Edward Crampton 227 British Guiana: Kaieteur Falls. . (duotone insert) Plate XIII, 211-226 British Guiana: Map of, showing the territory traversed by the Kaieteur and Roraima Expedi- tion ill. (map) 229 British Resident, Nepal, Asia 245 British West India Fleet 37 Brittany, France: Merriment in., (black and white insert) Plate XIV, 285-300 Bromeliads, British Guiana 232 Broom-seller, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 199 Brussels, Belgium i "Buccaneer" (Falcon) 44<> Buccaneers 499 Buckeye State, see Ohio. Buddhas, Lama Temple, Peking, China 347 Buddhism, Nepal, Asia 251, 259, 263, 269-270 Buddhist stupa of Bodhnath, Nepal, Asia 262-263 Buenos Aires, Argentina i93» 205 Buitenzorg, Java, Dutch East Indies: Botanical Garden '95 Bullocks, Haiti, West Indies 485 Buriats, Siberia ill. 5'7 Burke, Sir Edmund: Reference to 154 Burma, British India '. 249 Bustard with falcons, Northern Africa: Hunting (color insert) Plate IX, 441-456 Bustards, India: Houbara 439 Butcher-birds, see Shrikes. "Butcherboy" (Tiercel) *. 44° Butterflies, Brazil ...165, 173 Butterfly catcher, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: An old 165 "C" . Cabarets, Vladivostok, Siberia 53 1 Cabot, John: Voyages of 34 Cabot, Sebastian: Reference to cod found in Cape Breton Island 47 Cabral, Pedro Alvares: Painting of *75 Cabral, Pedro Alvares: Reference to 175 Caco bands, Haiti, West Indies. .500-501, 504-507. 509 Cactus, Mexico 70, 72, 75-76 Caesar, Julius: Reference to 9* Cake-sellers, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Dl. 207 Calexico, Calif 63, 77, 79-8o California ill. 112, 119, 123-124; (duotone insert) Plate VI-VII, 211-226; text 61, 69, 7'. 73. 175, 397 "Calumet and Arizona" smelter, Arizona 69 Page Calvin : Five points of 40 Calvinism, Channel Islands, English Channel 148 Camagiiey, Cuba 1 1 Camaguey Province, Cuba 21 Camel transportation, Mexican border 65, 73 Camel-back Bridge, Summer Palace near Peking, China ill. 344 Camels, Peking, China ill. 340, 342; text 335, 337 Cameron, J. A. H.: Colonel from Wyoming 60 Caminha, Pedro Vaz de: Reference to 175 Camoes, Luiz Vaz de: Os Lusiadas 195 Camp Duquesne, Arizona 71 Camp Verde, Texas: Arab khan 65 Campo, Calif 77 Campo Santo, Genoa, Italy 67 Camps, Kaieteur Falls, British Guiana ill. 239; text 232-233 Canada U3 Canada, British Columbia: Emperor Falls., (duo- tone insert) Plate XII, 211-226 Canada: Charm of Cape Breton Island. By Catherine Dunlop Mackenzie 34 Canada: Soldier's participation in World War.. 40, 42 Cananea Consolidated Mines 71 Cannibalism, Haiti, West Indies 500, 503 Canso, Strait of, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 52 Canton, China (color insert) Plate VI, 375-39OJ text 336, 391, 418, 425, 428 Cap Franchise, see Cape Haitian, Haiti, West Indies. Cap Henri, see Cape Haitien, Haiti, West Indies. Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Dis- covery of 34 Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: History of 34-35, 37, 39-40, 42 Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Map ill. (map) 35 Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Size of 34 Cape Breton Island, The Charm of. By Catherine Dunlop Mackenzie 34 Cape Haitien, Haiti, West Indies.. ill. 4945 text 469- 472, 479-482, 499, 510 Cape Maisi, Cuba 5. Io Cape North, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill- 57; text 47, 55, 58 Cape San Antonio, Cuba 5, ™ Cape-to-Cairo line.. text (duotone insert), Plate I, 211-226 Carey, Edith. Channel Islands, The 142 Carev Peter: Letter from Sir Thomas Leighton 151, 154 Carey, Peter: Mention of *49 Caribbean Sea 5, 12,31 Caribs, British Guiana ill. 232 ; text 233 Carioca Aqueduct, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 188- 189; text 170, 191 Carioca Square, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 170 Carnegie, Andrew: Cited .• 46 Carriers, China ill. 360; text 368-369 Carson, Kit: Mention of 73'74 Carteret, Amias de: Mention of *49 Carteret, Elizabeth de: Mention of 15* Carteret, Sir George: Reference to..io6, no, 149, 151 Carts, Peking, China ill. 343, 354 J text 335, 337 Carts, Zuni Mountains, New Mexico: Lumber Carvings, Tantric '.•••••,; 26z Cascade of Dianzundu, Lucalla River, Portuguese West Africa (duotone insert) Plate IV, 211-226 Cascades between Preslang and Tannin, India (duotone insert) Plate VIII, 211-226 CasquTt rocks, 'channerisiaAd;; English' Channel **' Cassava ceremony of hospitality, British Guiana 237, 243 Cassavas, British Guiana: Baking ill. 234 Castes, Nepal, Asia ....249, 251 Castle Church, Guernsey, Channel Islands, Eng- lish Channel • • •• vr ••• • • • • • • X5° Castle Cornet, Guernsey, Channel Islands, Eng- Castle Hill, Rio de"janeiro,"Brazil ill. I^19|; Cat owls, see Owls, Great horned. Catacombs, Rome, Italy &7 vni THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Cathay *Sl Cathedral, Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies ^ Catholic Church, Ching-teh-chen, China 399 Catiorac, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel *43 Cats as destroyers of birds and chickens 461 Cattle, Australia 33 Cattle, Channel Islands, English Channel 154 Cattle, Cuba 33 Cattle, Haiti. West Indies 492 Cattle. Mexican border 74 Caverns, Lake Enriquillo, Santo Domingo, West Indies: Paintings on walls of 488 Caves, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Mousterien ill. 152; text 143 Cayenne, French Guiana: Botanical Garden 171 Ceiba trees. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 Cemeteries, Chung-king, China ill. 362 Cemeteries. Mexico ill. 67 Centenary, Brazil 203 Central America: Resources 12 Centro Asturiano, Havana, Cuba 19 Centre Gallego, Havana. Cuba 19 Cervera Y Topete, Admiral Pascual: Spanish- American War 5-6 Chamber of Commerce, Ching-teh-chen, China 399, 405 Champ de Mars, Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies 496 Champlain, Samuel de: Vermont named for in Chandragiri Pass, Nepal, Asia 247 Chang: Reference to 367 Chang Hsun: Reference to 424 Chang-nan-chen, see Ching-teh-chen, China. Chang Tso-lin : Reference to 428 Changing Chinese. By Prof. Edward A. Ross 367 Changsha, China 391 Changu-Narain Temple, Nepal, Asia ill. 258; text 254, 259 Channel Islands, Map of, showing geographical relation to France and England ill. 151 CHANNEL ISLANDS, THE: BITS OF FRANCE PICKED UP BY ENGLAND, WHOSE HISTORY IS LINKED WITH THAT OF AMERICA. BY EDITH CAREY 142 Character studies (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300; text 284 Charlemagne's Rebellion, Haiti, West Indies 509 Charles I of England: Mention of 109, in, 149 Charles II of England: Reference to 104, 106-107, in, 149, 151 Charles III of France: Reference to 147 Charles IX of France: Mention of 109 Charles the Simple of France, see Charles III of France. Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xavier de: Cape Breton Island fisheries 47 CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND: THE MOST PICTURESQUE PORTION OF CANADA'S MARITIME PROVINCES— A LAND RICH IN HISTORIC ASSOCIA- TIONS, NATURAL RESOURCES, AND GEOGRAPTTIC APPEAL. BY CATHERINE DUNLOP MACKENZIE 34 Chart giving the falconers' names for the parts of a hawk ill. 432 Chateau des Marais, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 Chattahoochee, Fla 119 Chenapowu, British Guiana 235, 237 Cheng-tu, China 98, 363, 368-369, 374 Cheng-tu Plain, China... ill. 364; text 369-371, 373-374 Cheng-tu Railway, China 365 Cheops, Pyramid of i Cheticamp, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Trout pool near ill. 56 C'hi Men, China 399 Chicago, 111 ill. 136; text i, 6, 335, 521 Chicken and duck seller, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 206 Chicken coops, Havana city jail, Cuba ill. 6 Chief David, British Guiana 244 Chihli Province, China 427 Chihuahua, Mexico 64,67 Children (black and white insert) Plate VI, 285-300 Children, China... ill. 373, 409-411, (color insert) Plates II, VII, XI, 375-390; text 349, 407, 415-417 Page Children, British Guiana ill. 231, 233 Children, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 204-205, 207 Children, Siberia ill. 520, 529, 532, 534, 536 Children, Sze-chuan, China ill. 373 Children, Sweden. . (black and white insert) Plate II, 285-300; text 284 Chile 200 Chimepir Creek, British Guiana 257 Chin Hwa College, Peking, China 345, 353 Chin Kiang, China 4'3 CHINA Color insert XVI Plates, 375-390 China 263, 327, 429 China: Eden of the Flowery Republic, The. By Dr. Joseph Beech 355 China Inland Mission 399 China: "Man in the Street" in China. By Guy Magee, Jr 406 China: Peking, The City of the Unexpected. By Tames Arthur Muller 335 China: Shifting Scenes on the Stage of New China 423 China, West 367 China: World's Ancient Porcelain Center, The. By Frank B. Lenz 391 Chinese boys picking up ideographic types, Japan ill. 33i Chinese, Characteristics of 410-41 1 Chinese Christian Colleges .•• 374 Chirese Embassy, Khatmandu, Nepal, Asia ill. 253 Chinese, Mexican border 61 Chinese: Objection to being photographed ill. 417; text 410 Chinese, Variations of type 407-410 Chinese View, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 174 Ching Dynasty 4O4 Ching-teh-chen, China: The World's Ancient Por- celain Center. By Frank B. Lenz 391 Chitlong, Nepal, Asia 245, 247 Chiu Tsung, Emperor: Reference to.... 404 Chosroes : Invasion of Antioch 103 Chonart, Medard: Reference to I51 Christophe, Henri 469-473, 475, 479, 481-482, 499 Christophe, Henri: Death of 481-482 Christophe, Henri: Tomb of ill. 480 Christophe's Citadel, a Monument to the Tyranny and Genius of Haiti's King of Slaves. By Major G. H. Osterhout, Jr., U. S. M. C 468 Chunder Shumsheer Jung Rana Bahadur, General 283 Chung-king, China.. ill. 362; (color insert) Plate XVI, 375-390; text 361, 363, 365, 37n (color insert) Plate XIV, 375-390 Church of Sao Sebastiao, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 185, 191 Church of Simeon Stylites: Ruins of the ill. 96 Churches, Haiti, West Indies 49* Churches, Siberia 521, 535 Cibao Mountains, West Indies 483, 485 Cider Mill, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel »U- '58 Cienfuegos, Cuba " Cigars, Cuba: Production of 33 Cincinnati, Ohio *35 Citadel, Haiti, Christophe's ill. 468, 470-473; text 469-473, 475, 479 Civil War, United States 74 Civil War, United States: Cape Bretoner's par- ticipation in 4° Clameur de Haro, Channel Islands, English Channel 147-148 Clark, General George Rogers: Origin of the name of Kentucky 129 Clark, William: Mention of 14* Clay bricks, China ill. 394-395 Clay, Ching-teh-chen, China: Porcelain ill. 396; text 399, 401-402, 406 Clerks' Club, Havana, Cuba 19 Climate, Arizona 74 Climate, Haiti, West Indies 469, 483, 488 Climate, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 209 Climate, Siberia 5'3 Clubs, Cuba *9 Coahuila Indians, Mexican border 77 Coahuila, Mexico • • $3 Coal, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 42, 46 Coal, Sydney, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 4*. 46 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 IX Cobras, Isla das, Bay of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Cochin, China 4j£ ^ Cochise, Ariz ' %r Cock-fighting, Cuba V "g 17 Cock-fighting, Haiti, West Indies '.' "hi '484 Coconuts, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 305; text 313 Cocopah Indians, Mexican border 77 Codfish, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Drying ill, 5g Coelho, Goncalo: Reference to 185 Coffins, Canton, China 4x8 Coins of Antioch, Syria ill. 85; text 88, 99 Colombier, Samares Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Interior of a.... ill 159 Colorado ' ^ Colorado Desert, Calif ?2 Colorado: Garden of the Gods, Colorado Springs 116 Colorado: Origin and meaning of name..m, 113, 119 Colorado River 73-74, 77, 79 Colorado Springs, Colo.: Garden of the G'ods ' ill. 116 Columbia River ill. I22j i2$ Columbus, Christopher: Comment upon Cuba....' i Columbus, Christopher: Discovery of Haiti, West Indies 469, 483, 497, 499 Columbus, Christopher: Mention of 141 Columbus, Christopher: Remains of 175, 185 Columbus, Christopher: Voyages of.. 34 Columbus, N. Mex 67, 69, 79 "Comet" (Falcon) 440 Commerce, China 413, 421 Commercial School, Vladivostok, Siberia .' 525 Compositors, Japan: Chinese ill. 331; text 334 Concerts, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 319 Confucius Temple, Peking, China 347-348 Connecticut 249 Connecticut: Origin and meaning of the name Constantinople 81, 90, 374 Conquistadores . . ? 497 Cook, James: Reference to 301 Coolies, California 175 Coolies, China (color insert) Plates IV, IX, XIII, 375-390; ill. 412; text 413, 425 Copacabana Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 176, 191 "Copper Queen" smelter, Arizona 69 Copra, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 313; text 303, 305 Corcovado Mountain, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191, 209-210 Corn bazaar, Kiakhta, Siberia ill. 5 1 7 Cortes, Hernando: Reference to 112, 119, 499 Cormorants, China : Trained 363 Corpus Christi, Texas 1 1 r Cosmetics, Peking, China 345 Costumes, Haiti, West Indies 490 Costumes, Nepal, Asia ill. 252, 279; text 246-248 Costumes, Peking, China 344-345,349 Costumes, Siberia 533, 535 Costumes, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 302, 306, 312, 316, 320, 324; text 311, 324 Cotinga River, Brazil 238-239, 241 Cotton trees, Nepal, Asia 247 Coupee, Sark, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 162 Couriers, Syria: Native ill. 87 Court of Fief Beuval, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 157 Courtyards, Peking, China 341 Crabbe, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Gorge ill. 161 Crampton, Henry Edward. Kaieteur and Roraima 227 Creux des fees, Guernsey, Channel Islands, Eng- lish Channel 143 Crimean War 46 Crook, George: Apache Indians 74 Crusaders : Capture of Antioch 103 Crusaders: Knowledge of falconry 429 Cruz, Dr. Oswaldo: Reference to 202, 209 Ctesiphon, Mesopotamia 103 Cuba 492, 496-497 Cuba: Area of 5 Cuba Before the World: Sugar-cane production, Cuba 23 Cuba : Department of Agriculture 23 Cuba: Map of Bahama Islands and.... ill. (map) 4 Cuba: Provinces ' * Cuba: Scenery 9' " Cuba: Sugar-cane fields of.., ' TT; CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE'AN- WA£TER .BY..WILUAM JOSEPHSHO- Cuban National Tourist "Association.'.'.' .'.'.'.'7 i\ Cul de Sac, West Indies... Al Culloden Moor, Scotland '.'.'.'.'. .' ! ! Curtiss, Glenn H.: Scientific American trophy won by v y Curvello Hill, Rio de Janeiro,"Brazii! .' Customs, China Customs collectors, Mexican border..' " 70 Customs districts, Mexican border '.'.'." 7g Customs officers, Santo Domingo, West Indies' 487-488 Cygent No. i (Tetrahedral kite) ... .ill. 44; text 49^0 Cypress trees, St. Francis River, Ark.: Bald.. ill 139 Czechoslovakia -* Daghestan, Russian Caucasus: Hawking text (color insert) Plate VI, 441-456 Daiquiri, Cuba ™, Dalny, Manchuria Damascus, Syria 02 Dancing, Haiti, West Indies .Y.Y.Yitt 482 Dancing, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean T-, j- XT *H- 302; text 307, 323 Dandis, Nepal, Asia 2.i Danuar tribe, Nepal, Asia !!!!!! 249 Daphne, A nymph: Reference to ......00-100 Daphne Gate, Antioch, Syria 80 01 Daphne, Syria ,..8Q 0, QQ'TOO Dardanelles, Turkey in Europe .521 Dartiguenave: Photograph of ill* 403 Dartiguenave: Reference to 498 505-506 Dauphin's Gate, Louisburg, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Remains of ™ Davis, President Jefferson: Referred to 65 Da>abung, Asia 2,~ Declaration of Independence ' 277 Declaration of Paris, 1856 i54 Deer, British Guiana in 2^2 Delai Lama: Reference to 272 Delaware e JQ Delaware, Lord, see West, Baron Thomas.' Delaware: Origin and meaning of the name 107 Delaware River, Del 107 Delawarr, Lord, see West, Baron Thomas. Delhi Durbar 281 Delphi, Greece [ 9l Del Rio, Texas 65, 71 Demerara River, British Guiana 228-229 Deming, N. Mex 57 Denver, Colo. : Streets 335 Deny, Nicholas: Mention of 50, 52 Derelicts, China ill. 421; text 419 Desert Land Act 71 Des Moines, Iowa m Dessalines, Jean Jacques: Reference to.. 47 1-472, 481 Dessalines, Jean Jacques: Statue of 496 "Destiny" (Falcon) 440 Detroit, Mich 1 1 1 Devil Worshippers, Channel Islands, English Channel 143, 147 Dhir Shamshire Rana Bahadur, General 283 "Diadem," Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean: The ill. 310 Diamonds, Brazil 210 Diana: Reference to 93, 99 Diary of Cody Marsh: Extracts from 525, 530 Dias de Solis, Jofto, see Solis, Juan Diaz de. Diaz, President Porfirio: Referred to 79 Digarchi Temple, Tibet, Asia 272 Dingwall, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 55,58 Diquiny, Haiti, West Indies 496 Diseases, Haiti, West Indies 505, 508, 510 Diseases, Siberia 521,535 Dixcart Bay, Sark, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 146 Dog Mountains 67 Dolmens, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 Dom JoSs's Botanical Garden, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Dominica, West Indies 227 Dominican Republic, see Santo Domingo. Dominion Coal Company: Donation of site for first wireless station in United States 50 Don Juan Bautista de Anza: Highway to Cali- fornia 73 Doorways, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 153 Dorgee or Thunderbolt of Indra, Swayambunath Temple. Nepal, Asia ill. 275; text 263 Dorji. Talung Monastery, Sikkim, Asia ill. 255 "Doroga" (Bad road) 521 Douglas. Ariz '..63, 69, 71, 79-80 Dragon Rapids, Yangtze River, China (color insert) Plate V, 375-390 Dragon Screen. Peking, China.. ill. 347; text 344, 354 Drai tribe, Nepal, Asia 249 Drake. Sir Francis: Reference to 119 Drawing class, Santo Domingo, West Indies.. ill. 510 Drawing of the foot -of a goshawk ill. 459 Dniconr. Madame: Siege of Louisburg 39 "Druid" (Tiercel) 44O D"ck-ha\vks, see Peregrines. Dnkr >f Newcastle: Reference to Cape Breton Inland 34 Diilnth. Minn ill. 137; text in Diinhar. Nepal. Asia: Reference to the 245, 283 "Dunkirk of America" (Louisbourg) 37 Diiranj?o, Mexico 64-65 Durbar Hall Rhatgaon. Nepal, Asia 255 Durhar Palace. Khatmandu, Nepal, Asia 251 Durga Pnja, Nepal, Asia 248 Dutch hood used by falconers ill. 430 Eagle Lake and Mount Lafayette, White Moun- tains. \. H ill. to8 Eatrle Pa**. Texas 63-65 Eaele*. Timed States 466 Eat-1 « ttf|'itehrad«-d 466 Earthquakes, Syria 101-102 Ea«*t ^f••ica. Portuguese 191 East l«»dia Company 272 East Side. New York Shops 491 E!>KN Of T"E H.OWF.RY REPUBLIC, THE. RV rv*. IOSKPT1 REECTI 355 Edit -rial department of a Japanese newspaper... 334 Editorial staff of a Japanese newspaper 329 Education. CMna 374 Editca'i -n. Haiti. West Indies 511 Education. P.-king. China 345, 347 Education. Santo Domingo, West Indies 510 Education. Tahiti. Society Islands, Pacific Ocean: Corr.pnlsory 301 Edward VII. King of England: Reference to 50, 283 Egypt 85, 102, ' 254, 263, 429 "Eighteen nations," China 368 Ekatcnnhurg, Russia 521 El Ce'.tro, Calif 77 El Dorado I Elephas trogontherii, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 Elizabeth. Queen of England: Reference to.. 109, 118 El Paso and Southwestern Railway 71 El Paso, Texas 63, 65-66, 71, 74-75, 79-80, in Elephant Rutte Dam, N. Mex 65 Elizabeth. Quc-en of England 151 Ellis Island, New York., (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300 Elsie's Harbor, Bras D'Or Lakes, Cape Breton Island, N ova Scotia, Canada ill. 54 "Empress" ( Falcon) 440 Emperor Falls, British Columbia, Canada. . (duo- tone insert) Plate XII, 211-226 Emperor's Palace, Peking, China 337 Employees. Shanghai-Nanking Railroad ill. 408; text 410-411 Empress Dowager, China: Reference to 351 Engineers, China: American 363 England., (color insert) Plate VII, 441-456; text 24, 105, 143. '54, 283, 429, 431, 439 English Channel: Channel Islands. By Edith Carey 142 English Channel, Map showing geographical rela- tion of Channel Islands to France and Eng- land ill. i51 English history: Written records of 147 Page Englishtown, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 55 "Enid" (Goshawk) 440 Entre-los-Rios, Santo Domingo, West Indies.... 485 Ephesus, Asia Minor 89 Epiphanes, see Antiochus IV. Episcopalianism, Channel Islands, English Channel 148 Epitaph (Newspaper) 71 Equator 431 Ericson, Lief: "Markland" 34 Erkui Creek, British Guiana 241 Escorial, Spain: Mausoleum of the 203 Essequibo River, British Guiana. .. .text 229-230; (duotone insert) Plate XIII, 211-226 fitang saumatre, see Lake Azuey, Haiti, West Indies. Euphrates Valley, Turkey in Asia 81,90 Europe : Literature of 43 1 Europe, Medieval: History of 431 Expedition to Kaieteur and Roraima, British Guiana, An. By Henry Edward Crampton... 227 Explorations, French in Exports, Chung-king, China 363 Exports, Cuba 11-12 Exports, Guatemala : 1 1 Exports, Venezuela 1 1 Eyess, see Hawks, Eyess. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Black and White insert XVI Plates, 285-300 Factories, Ching-teh-chen, China: Porcelain, .ill. 392- 393, 395-397, 399-4°i, 403-404 "Faerie" (Sparrow-hawk) 440 Fair hit: Gerfalcon striking heron: A (color insert) Plate II, 441-456 Falcon party in Elizabethan England, A... (color insert) Plate VII, 441-456 Falconer's Club 429 FALCONRY Color insert XII Plates 441-456 Falconry, Africa (color insert) 'Plate IX, XI, 441-456; text 429 Falconry, Ancient Greece 429 Falconry, Arabia. . (color insert) Plate VIII, 441-456 Falconry, Asia (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456 Falconry, China 429 Falconry, Egypt 429 Falconry, England. ... (color insert) Plate VII, 441- 456; text 429, 431, 439 Falconry, Europe. . (black and white insert) Plate XIII, 441-456; text 429 Falconry, France 429 Falconry, Genesee Valley, N. Y 431 Falconry, Holland (black and white insert) Plate XIII, 441-456; (color insert) Plate XII, _, 44I-456; text 429, 435 Falconry, Iceland 439 Falconry, India. ... (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456; text 429, 439 Falconry, Italy 429 Falconry, Japan 429 Falconry, Manchuria (black and white insert) Plate XII, 441-456 Falconry, Persia 429 Falconry, Russia 429 Falconry, Russian Caucasus. . (color insert) Plate VI, 441-456 Falconry, Scotland (color insert) Plate III, 441-456; text 431 Falconry, Spain 420 FALCONRY, THE SPORT OF KINGsVoNCE THE MEANS OF SUPPLYING MAN'S NE- CESSITIES, IT HAS SURVIVED THE CEN- TURIES AS ONE OF THE MOST ROMAN- TIC PASTIMES OF HISTORY. BY LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES 429 Falconry, United States 43! Falcon's fist in. 458 Falcons, Names of types 433 Falcons on the cadge: Hooded. . (black and white insert) Plate XII, 441-456 Falcons on the wrist, Holland: Cast of (black ' and white insert) Plate XIV, 441-456 Falcons, Valkenswaarde, Holland: Trapping (black and white insert) Plate XIII, 441-456 Falcons weathering. ... (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Family, China: The .418-419 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XI Farms, Mexico ill, fg Father of Waters, see Mississippi River. Fautaua Fall, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill ,IO Fautaua River, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean -O2 Fautaua Valley, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 302-301 Feast of Fertility, Daphne, Syria 84 100 Feast of Transfiguration, Justinian. Syria .' 101 Feis, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 312, Ferns, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 321,' 323 Ferries, China : Human ^ 426 Festivals, Nepal, Asia .248, 276 Feudal Chapel, Samares, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Interior of ill. 160 Feudal Courts, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 157; text 147 Feudalism, Bhutan, Asia 272 Fiet le Roi ^8 Fiefs, Channel Islands, English Channel 142 Field cadge . . ill. 416 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 521 "Finger of God," Organ Mountain, N. Mex 191 Firearms. Haiti, West Indies ,. 507 "First-class service!". .. (black and white insert) Plate X, 285-300; text 284 Fish Creek Hill 74 Fisher, Dr. Albert K. : Examinations made of the stomachs of Red-tailed hawks 465 Fisher, 1 )r. Albert K. : Goshawks 459 Fisher, Di. Albert K.: Hawks and Owls of the United States 460 Fisher, Major: Eyess falcon 440 Fisheries, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 47 Fish-liawks, see Ospreys. Fish-nets, China ill. 357 "Fish-tail" boats, Yangtze River, China ill. 358 Flagstaff, Ariz 74 Flamingo Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Flanking Tower, Peking, China ill. 354 Florida 33, 37, 119 Florida: Airplane view of Miami ill. 115 Florida: Origin and meaning of the name in, 113, 115 Florida, Straits of i, 5, 19 Flour, Haiti, West Indies: Unloading ill. 491 Flowers. Haiti, West Indies 489 Flowers, Rio de JanHro, Brazil 171, 191 Flowers, Siberia: Wild 513, 519 Fonseca, Manuel D^odors da: Mention of 187 Font, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Chan- nel: Old 150 Food, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean Football, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil '...ill.' 200 Foot-pumps, Sze-chuan, China... ill. 364; text 369, 371 "Force a la Loi" 496 Forests, British Guiana 235, 237-239 Forests, Haiti, West Indies 485, 488 Forests, Nepal, Asia. ill. 266 Forests, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 Formosa Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Fort Bliss, Texas 66 Fort de Joux, France 471 Fort Fillmore 73 Fort Lage, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 178 Fort Liberte, Haiti, West Indies 481 Fort Myer, Va 50 Fort Santa Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. . .ill. 178-179 Fort Sfto JoSo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 178-179 Fort Yuma 73 Fortifications, Antioch, Syria 81 Fortifications, Nepal, Asia 251 Fortress, Morro, Cuba 5 Fortuna: Reference to 85 Fortunate Island, Spain 52 Fortune-tellers, China ill. 412; text 417-418 Forty Thieves 401 Foundling asylums, Havana, Cuba ill. 33 Four-nation Hu-Kwang agreement 363 France 105, 154, 201, 429 France: Possessions in Canada 34, 37 French Revolution, The 429 French, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 3*0, 318 Frederick the Great: Reference to.. Fruit, Cuba Fruit, Haiti, West Indies. .. .'.'. '.'.'.'.'. V. '.'.'.' '.'.496-497 Fruit, Sze-chuan, China Fruit, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean YO^ 3" Fuel, Chmg-teh-chen, China 402 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz. Falconry, The Sport of Kings 429 Fugitive from American justice, Story of a.. 61 Fukien Guild Hall, Ching-teh-chen, China '.'. 403 Fukien Province, China.. I,« Fukuzawa, Yukichi " V2V \lo Funerals, China Furs, Siberia 412,48 Gabarus Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ................ Gadsden Purchase ............. | ' ?- Gadsden Treaty, or "The Treaty of Mesilia"!]: '. 69 . Gaelic language, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia Canada .44o, Gaida (Boy General) Reference' to.' .'.'.' "Gaiety Gal" (Goshawk) Gahcia, Spain ...................... Galveston, Texas: Docks at.. " 'ill' 1,2 Game-birds, United States.... Ganges, Nepal, Asia ............... " 'ih' „* Garden of Eden ' " Gates, Antioch, Syria in. 88; text 85, 89 Gates, Peking, China ill 337-338 Gateways. Mexico: Wrought-iron ' ill 67 Gavea Reach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 208 Gavea Rock, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 172; text 191, 208 Gazelles, Arabia (color insert) Plate VIII, 441-456 Gazelles, India 4™ Geiranger Fiord, Norway.. text (black 'and white * insert) Plate XV, 211-226 Gendarmeries, Haiti, West Indies. . .501, 507, 509-511 "General" (Prize falcon) 440 Genesee Valley, N. Y.: Falconry. ...!..!!!!!!!! 431 George II of England: Reference to m Georgetown, British Guiana 228-230,244 Georgia * Georgia: Origin and meaning of the name in Georgia, Russian Caucasus. . (color insert), Plate VI, 441-456 "Geraint" (Goshawk) .... 440 Gerfalcon striking a heron. .. (color insert) Plate II. 441-456 Gerfalcons 439 Gerfalcons, England 439 Gerfalcons, European. . (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Gerfalcons, Greenland. . (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Gerfalcons, Iceland. .. (color insert) Plate I, 441-456; Gerfalcons, United States 462 Germany x 5 j Geronimo: Mention of 69 Gibbon, Edward: Devastation of Roman Empire 101 Gibraltar, Spain I43 Gilead, Syria: Mountains of 102 Glace Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada c0 GLIMPSES OF SIBERIA, THE RUSSIAN " "WILD EAST." BY CODY MARSH 512 Globe, Ariz: Apache Indians 69 Gloria Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Gloria Park, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 175 Gloves used by falconers ill. 430 Gobi, Desert of, Mongolia 521 God of Mercy, Lama Temple, Peking, China 347 God of Valor, Taotist temples, Peking, China 348 God of Wealth, Taotist temples, Peking, China.. 348 Goddess Bhawani 250 Goddess Kali, Khatmandu, Nepal, Asia ill. 248 Goddess of Mercy, Temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking, China 353 Goddess Taleju, Royal Temple of the 251 Gold Torque, Saint Helier, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel .ill. 148 Golf, Scotland 43T XII THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Gomez, Jose Miguel: Effort to overturn Cuban government r I Gonave Island, Haiti, West Indies 493 Gonaives, Gulf of, Haiti, West Indies. ......... 485 Gooding, Paul. Tahiti: A Playground of Nature 301 Gopher State, see Minnesota. Gorge, Crabbe, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel >"• lfil Gorges, Sir Ferdinando: Reference to m Gorges, Yangtze River, China.. ill. 357-358; (color insert) Plate V, 375-390 ; text 355-356, 359, 363 Gosainthan, Indian 247, 202 Goshawk, Drawing of the foot of a "•••"'• 459 Goshawks (A. atricapillus) (color insert) Plate I, IV-V, (black and white insert) Plate VI, 44'-456; text 433, 437, 458-459, 461, 467 Goshawks, United States (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456; text 431, 461 Gosselin, Hellier: Mention of 149 Gramophones, Haiti, West Indies 487 Grand Canal, China 4*5 Grand Canyon of the Colorado ill. 117; text (duotone insert) Plate IX, 211-226 Grand Fork River, British Columbia: Emperor Falls (duotone insert) Plate XII, 211-226 Grand-pre plantation, Haiti, West Indies 481 Grande riviere, Haiti, West Indies 473, 479 Granite State, see New Hampshire. Graphophone, Beinn Bhreagh Laboratory, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 47f 49 Grass type, Japan ill. 330 ; text 334 Graves, La Motte, Jersey, Channel Islands, Eng- lish Channel : Neolithic ill. 153 Graves, Ralph A. Human Emotion Recorded by Photography 284 Great Britain 201-202 Great Falls, Mont.: Moonlight scene on the Missouri River at ill. 126 Great Falls, Potomac River (duotone insert) Plate X, 211-226 Great Lakes 37, 40, in, 137, 467 Great Wall, China.. ill. 352; text 349, 353-355, 39*, 425 Greece 83 Greece, Ancient: Falcony 429 Greeks 251 Green Mountains, Vt in Green, Dr. Thomas E. Making of a Japanese Newspaper, The 327 Crosney Castle, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 Ground Hog mine, Arizona 71 Ground-squirrels (Citellus) 461, 465 Grouse attacked by a Tiercel gentle (color insert) Plate III, 441-456 Grouse, United States : Sharp-tailed 431 Grove of Daphne, Antioch, Syria 91 Guadalajara, Mexico 71 Guanabara Bay, Brazil 165, 182, 185 Guantanamo Bay, Cuba: United States naval station ill. 8-9 Guardian of the Eastern Mountain, Taotist temples, Peking, China 348 Guatemala : Exports 1 1 Guaymas, Mexico 69 Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel, .ill. 144, 149-150, 153-154, 157-158, 164; text 143, 147-149, i54-I55, 161-163 Guernsey farmer and his wife, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 164 Guiana, British: Kaieteur and Roraima. By Henry Edward Crampton 227 Guianas, Map with an inset showing the territory traversed by the Kaieteur and Roraima Ex- pedition t ill. (map) 229 Guilds, Ching-teh-chen, China 405 Gulf of California 69 Gulf of Gonaives, Haiti, West Indies 485 Gulf of Mexico 5, 12, 31, 75 Gulf Stream 60 Guns, Christophe's Citadel, Haiti, West Indies 469, 471, 473, 475 Gurkhas, Nepal, Asia 249, 259, 272. 277, 279, 283 "H" Hachita. N. Mex 69 Haciendas, Mexico ill. 68 Hack-boards for hawks 435 Page Hadrian, Emperor: Reference to 367 Haggards, see Hawks, Haggard. Haiti, A Little- Known Marvel of the Western Hemisphere. By Major G. H. Osterhout, Jr... 468 HAITI AND ITS REGENERATION BY THE UNITED STATES 4f7 HAITI, THE HOME OF TWIN REPUBLICS. BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON.... 483 Haiti, West Indies: American occupation of 490, 493, 505-506, 509-5" Haiti, West Indies : Congress 505-506 Haiti, West Indies: Discovery of 483 Haiti, West Indies: French occupation of... 483, 499 Haiti, West Indies: German propaganda 509 Haiti, West Indies: Language of 483, 511 Haiti, West Indies: Map showing its two republics ill. (map) 489 Haiti, West Indies: Politics and government 499, 50i, 503, 506, 509 Haiti, West Indies: Size of 483, 489, 497 Haiti, West Indies: Spanish occupation of 483 Hakluyt, Richard: Voyages 195 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 39 Hall, William H. Antioch the Glorious 81 Hamah, Syria ill. 98; text 84, 370 Hamites 251 Han Dynasty 374, 398 Hang-chau, China. . (color insert) Plate XII, XV, 375-390; text 409 Hankow, China 336, 363, 391, 425 Hannibal : Reference to 102 Happy Year Hall, see Temple of Heaven, Peking, China. Harbin, Manchuria ill. 528; text 521, 531 Harbor, New York, N. Y.: Sugar boat from Cuba ill. 18 Harbor, Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies ... ill. 502 Harbor, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 519; text 521, 525 Harbors, Cuba ill. 7; text 5 Haro: Meaning of 148 Hata Gate, Peking, China 335 Hatamen Street, Peking, China 335 Hats, Haiti, West Indies ill. 504; text 490 Havana cigars, Demand for i, 5 Havana, Cuba ill. 6-7, 31, 33; text i, 6-7, 11-12, 14-16, 19 Havana, Cuba: Wealth of 6-7 Havana Province, Cuba 19 Havana-Santiago Express 1 1 Havilland, James de: Mention of 149 Hawaiian Islands. . (duotone insert) Plate XIV, 211-226; text 311 Hawk, Chart giving the falconers' names for the parts of a ill. 432 "Hawk furniture" ill. 430 Hawk making a try for a blackbird: Sparrow- (color insert) Plate X, 441-456 Hawking, see Falconry. Hawks, Africa 433 Hawks and Owls of the United States. By Dr. Albert K. Fisher. ; 460 Hawks, Beneficial species. ... (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 463 Hawks, Broad-winged ... (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 465 Hawks, Chicken 463 Hawks, Cooper's (A. cooperi) (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456; text 461-462, 467 Hawks, Duck 467 Hawks, England: Sparrow- 460 Hawks, Eyess 433, 437, 440 Hawks, Ferruginous Rough-legged. . (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 465 Hawks, Food of young 433-435 Hawks, Forest 431, 461 Hawks, Haggard 433, 437 Hawks, India 433 Hawks, Long- winged ill. 438; text 43^ 433, 437- 438, 458 Hawks, Marsh .... (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456; text 466 Hawks, Pigeon .... (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456; text 463, 467 Hawks, Red-shouldered ill. 463; (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 461 Hawks, Red-tailed., (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 461, 465 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XIII Page Hawks, Rough-legged. ... (color insert) Plate XV, 441- 456; text 465 Hawks, Sharp-shinned, .(color insert) Plates X, XVI, 441-456; text 460-462, 467 Hawks, Short- winged ill. 438; text 431, 433, 437, 458-459 Hawks, Soaring (.Buteos) 465 Hawks, Sparrow. .. (color insert) Plates X, XVI, 441- 456; text 431, 433, 437, 458-460, 466-467 Hawks, Species of 431, 433 Hawks, Squirrel 465 Hawks, Swainson's. . (color insert) Plate XV, 441-456; text 465 Hawks that are enemies of man. ... (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456 Hawks, Training of young 433-437 Hawks, United States 460-463, 465-467 Haystacks, Sze-chuan, China ill. 365 Hayti, or The Black Republic, by Sir Spencer St. John 469, 479, 505 Hell's Hip Pocket 74 Henrietta Maria, Queen of England: Reference to 109, in Henry of Navarre: Mention of 109 Hcraclea, Syria 89, 91, 93 Herm, Channel Islands, English Channel 143, 161- 162, 164 Hermosillo, Mexico 69 Herod the Great: Street built by 91 Herod's Suburb, Antioch, Syria 91 Herodotus: Reference to 175 Heron attacked by a gerfalcon (color insert) Plate II, 441-456 Herons 438-439 Hess, Joseph : Kuaigai Shimbun 327 Hetowrah, Nepal, Asia 247 High Ash Club ..429 Highlanders, World War: Nova Scotia 40, 42 Highlands of Scotland 53 Highway around Lake Tahoe, Calif ill. 124 Hills outside of Peking, China 349'35o Hilo, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands. .. .text, (duotone insert) Plate XIV, 211-226 Himalaya Mountains, British India 245, 251, 262, 279, 410 Hinduism, Nepal, Asia 251 Hispaniola 483, 497 Hitiaa, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323, 325-326 Hodgson, Brian Houghton: Reference to 270, 272, 277 Hoe perfecting machine, Japan 334 Holland (black and white insert) Plate XIII, 441- 456; text 171, 429-435 Hongkong, China 4°8 Hoods for hawks ill. 43<>; text 434, 437 Horses, Haiti, West Indies 492 Horses, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 210 Horseshoe Falls, Niagara Falls, New York — Ontario (duotone insert) Plate II, 211-226 Hostages, Haiti, West Indies: Murder of 503 Hotels, Havana, Cuba 7, i I Hotels, Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies 493 Houbara bustards, see Bustards, Houbara. Hougues, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 House-boats, China 393, 396 Houses, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia ill. 250 Houses, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. ill. 196; text 171, 173 Houses, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 318; text 315, 323, 325-326 Hsu Hsi Chang, President: Reference to 4°4 Huachuca Range, Ariz 71 Hudson Bay, Canada 37 Hudson Bay Company: Charter of the IS1 Hugo, Victor: Reference to Channel Islands 143, 155, 161 HUMAN EMOTION RECORDED BY PHO- TOGRAPHY. BY RALPH A. GRAVES 284 Hunan Province, China 425-426 Hungary i°5 Hunt, Governor: Honor system 7* Hunuargan Dhoka Durbar, Nepal, Asia 269 Hydrodrome boats: Dr. Bell's ill. 47-49J text 50 "I" Ibis, Pajaro Island, Mexico : White 44<> Ibraham Pasha: Capture of Antioch i« Ice-cream wagon, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 198 Page Iceland : Falconry 439 Ichang, China 355, 356, 358, 361, 363 Ichang to Chung-king, China: Journey from 358, 361 Idaho: Origin and meaning of name 141 Idaho: Shoshone Falls (duotone insert) Plate XVI, 211-226 Ideographic types, Japan: Chinese boys picking ill. 331; text 334 Iguanas, Lake Azuey, Haiti, West Indies 487 Iguazu Falls, Brazil. . (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226; text Plate IV, 211-226 Iguazu River, Brazil: Iguazu Falls (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226 Illinois 5, 10 Illinois: Origin and meaning of the name.... 129, 136 Images, Nepal, Asia ill. 248, 269, 280 Immigrant mother and children. . (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300; text 284 Immigration inspectors, Mexican border 79-80 Imperial Palace, Peking, China 341 Imperial pottery 404 Imperial Valley, Calif 74, 77 Imperial Valley Canal 74 Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa 109 India. . (duotone insert) Plate VIII, 211-226; text 24, 8 1, 84, 143, 429, 439; (black and white insert) Plate XI, 441-456 India, Map of, showing geographical relation of Nepal to India, Burma, Kashmir and Tibet ill. (map) 249 Indian children, Oraibi, Ariz ill. 140 Indian hood used by falconers ill. 430 Indian Mutiny 283 Indian names 105, 119, 125, 129, 131-134, 136- 14*. 143 "Indian salt" (Sugar) 24 Indiana 5, 122 Indiana: Origin and meaning of the name 119 Indians, British Guiana 230-231, 233, 235, 239, 241, 243 Indians, Mexican border 61, 73-74, 77 Industries, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 42, 46-47 Infantile paralysis epidemic, New York., (black and white insert) Plate III, 285-300; text 284 Influenza, British Guiana 243 Influenza, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 209 Igonish, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 58; text 37, 55, 58 Inhabitants, Nepal, Asia ill. 252-253, 256, 279; text 245-279 Inhabitants, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 302, 305, 308, 310, 312, 316-318, 320, 324; text 303, 307, 315, 321, 326 Insect net, British Guiana 233 Insects, Mexican border 75 Inscriptions, Haiti, West Indies 480 Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 202; text 209 Insular castles, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 142 International and Great Northern Railway 64 International Railway 77, 79 Inverness, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada : Coal fields 42 149, 154-155, 161 Iowa: Origin and meaning of the name 129 Ipanema Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 168, 191 Ireng, British Guiana 237 Ireland: Potatoes 319 Irkutsk, Siberia ill. 528; text 521 Irrigation, Mexico 66 Isabella of Brazil, Countess d' Eu: Liberation of slaves 201 , 203 Isaiah : Reference to 34' "Isault" (Goshawk) 44» Isle of France, see French Guiana. "Isle Royal," see Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada. Isthmus of Taravao, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323 Italy: Falconry 429 Ithaca, N. Y.: Peregrines ill. 434 "J" Jabel Siman, Syria: Ruins of the church of... ill. 95 Jacaranda trees, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 Jacmel, Haiti, West Indies: Jail ill. 49<> XIV THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Jacutnba Pass 77 ~ade Fountain Pagoda near Peking, China 351 aguars, British Guiana 233, 235 ai alai, Cuba \7, »9 ail, Havana, Cuba ill. 6 ail, Jacmel, Haiti, West Indies ID. 4°o amaica. West Indies: Turkey-buzzards 492 Barnes II of England: Reference to ^"'" l°6 Tanvrin's Tower, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel »11. 163 Saochow, sec Raochow, China, apan 345, 427, 429 apan: Making of a Japanese Newspaper, The. By Dr. Thomas E. Green 327 apanese, Mexican border 61 aqueira trees, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 171 ars, Ching-teh-chen, China: Porcelain ill. 401, 404 ehus, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 307 crash, Palestine ill. 102; text 89 eremiah (Arecuna chief) British Guiana 241, 243 ersey. Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 142, 150, 152-153, 155, 158-161, 163; text 106, 143. 147- 149, 154-155, 161 Jerusalem. Palestine 89, 103 Jethou, Channel Islands, English Channel 143, 161-162 Jesses (Light straps attached to falcon's feet).. ill. 430 Jews. Siberia ill. 5'7 Jiji-Shimpo, Japan 327, 334 inrikisha men, Peking, China 353, 355 inrikisha men, Japan: Group of ill. 328 inrikisha covers, A repairer of ill. 414 inrikisbas. Ching-teh-chen, China 399 inrikishas, Peking, China 335, 34°, 35O-3S'. 355 itneys. West China ill. 360 oao VI: Reference to.... 171, 191, 194-195, 201, 203 "John Anderson my jo, John" text (black and white insert) Plate V, 285-300 John, King of England: Reference to 147-148 Johnston, Sir Harry. Haiti, the Home of Twin Republics 483 ordan River, Palestine 89, 102 ournalism. Japan 327, 329, 334 uan de Onate: Mention of 74 uarez, Mexico 66-67, 79 uichow, see Raochow, China. ulian. Emperor: Reference to 99-100 une Bug (Airship) 50 ung Bahadur: Reference to 247, 251, 283 unks. China.. ill. 357; (color insert) Plate I, 375-390 upiter: Reference to 83 ustinian: Reference to 101 ustinian, Syria 81, 101 ute fiber, Matanzas, Cuba: Drying ill. 32 uvenal : Quotation from 84 "K" KAIETEUR AND RORAIMA, THE GREAT FALLS AND THE GREAT MOUNTAIN OF THE GUIANAS. BY HENRY EDWARD CRAMPTON 227 Kaieteur Falls, British Guiana. . (duotone insert) Plate XIII, 221-226; ill. 230 Kaieteur Gorge, British Guiana.. ill. 228; text 230, 232 Kamaiwa-wong, British Guiana 240-241, 243 Kamana Mountain, British Guiana 237 Kan River, China 393 Kangaruma, British Guiana 230-23 1 Kansas City, Mo 63, 69 Kansas: Origin and meaning of the name 133 Karanang River, Brazil 238 Kashmir, Asia 249 Katsura, Prince : Reference to 327 Kauwa Creek, British Guiana 241 Kearny, General Stephen Watts: Army of the West 73 Keio Gijuku, Japan 329 Kennebec, Maine 119 Keno, Father: Mention of 71 Kentucky: Origin and meaning of the name 129 Kentucky River, Ky 129 Keramos. By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.... 398 Kestrels 4S7, 467 Key West, Fla 497 Key West — Havana Ferry 19 Keystone State, see Pennsylvania. Khan, Camp Verde, Texas: Arab 65 Page Khas or Chitsi, Nepal, Asia .................... 249 Khatmandu, Nepal, Asia... ill. 248, 253, 258, 263, 267 271, 280; text 245, 247-248, 251, 255, 259, 265, 268 Khatmandu Valley, Nepal, Asia ........ 245, 247, 272, 274, 283 Kheops, Pyramid of, see Cheops, Pyramid of. Khufu, Pyramid of, see Cheops, Pyramid of. Khusrau, see Chosroes. Kiakhta, Siberia ................... ill. 517; text 425 Kia-ling River, China ---- text 363; (color insert) Plate XVI, 375-390 Kiangsi, China: The World's Ancient Porcelain Center. By Frank B. Lenz .................. 391 Kiangsi Porcelain Company, Ching-teh-chen, China 403-404 Kilauea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands ____ text, Plate XIV, 211-226 Killarney, Ireland ............................ 53 Kilns, Ching-teh-chen, China: Porcelain. .398, 402-403 King George tbe Third's Island, see Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean. King-te-chen, see Ching-teh-chen, China. King-te-chin, see Ching-teh-chen, China. King-teh-chen, see Ching-teh-chen, China. Kinlock, Capt. : Reference to ................... 272 Kirtipur, Nepal, Asia .......................... 259 Kitatinny Range, N. J ......................... up Kite, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada- Novel ................................... ill. 38 Kites, Dr. Bell's man-lifting ......... ill. 44; text 49 Kites, Tetrabedral ................ ill. 44; text 49-50 Kiukiang, China .......................... 39i, 393 Kokumm, Japan ........................... 327 Koo. Dr. V. K. Wellington: Reference to ....... 374 "Kopek Hill," Vladivostok, Siberia ............. 525 Kopinanang River, British Guiana .............. 237 Koras, Nepal, Asia ............................ 271 Kuaigai Shimbun, Japan ....................... 327 Kuampo, Japan . . ............................ 327 Kuang-chau-wan : Reference to ................. 423 Kuang-tung Party, China ................... 426-428 Kuhlai Khan : Reference to ................. 346, 350 Kukenaam Mountain, British Guiana ........... 241 Kukri, Nepal, Asia ............................ 271 Kwin Yin near Peking, China: Shrine of ....... 353 Kweichow, China ............................. 355 Kychu River, Asia ............................. 272 Laborers, China ....................... 391, 404-405 La Cotte Ste Brelade, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Mousterian cave ............ 143 La Diademe, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ................................... 301-302 "Lady Jane Grey" (Falcon) ................... 440 "Lady Macbeth" (Sparrow-hawk) ............... 440 La Ferriere Citadel, see Christophe's Citadel, Haiti, West Indies. Laguna Dam, Ariz ............................. 74 Lake Ainslie, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada .................................... 53 Lake Azuey, Haiti, West Indies ...... ..485, 487, 496 Lake Baikal, Siberia ........................... 528 Lake Champlain, N. Y .......................... in Lake Enriquillo, Santo Domingo, West Indies 485, 488 Lake Keuka, N. Y ............................. 50 Lake Limon, Santo Domingo, West Indies ...... 485 Lake of Antioch, Syria ........................ 85, 88 Lake Superior, United States ................. ill. 137 Lake Tahoe, Calif.: Highway around ......... ill. 124 Lakes-o-Law, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ................................. .. . 53 La Motte, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Neolithic graves ................ ill. 153 Lama Temple, Peking, China ................ 347-348 Lamaseries, Sze-chuan, China .................. 368 Lander: Mention of ............... . .......... 155 Langley, Samuel Pierpont: Aerodromic work.... 49 La Nouvelle, France ........................... 39 Laodkea, Syria ....... . ........ .............. 84 Lapa Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ............. 191 Laredo, Texas ........................... 63-64, 79 La Republique d' Haiti. By Edgar La Salve ---- 470 La Salle, Robert Cavelier: Reference to ..... in, 141 La Salve, Edgar: La Republique d' Haiti ....... 470 "Las Caritas" (Little faces) Lake Enriquillo, Santo Domingo, West Indies ................. 488 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 xv Lascelles: "Bois-le-duc" 440, 457 Lascelles : Goshawks 459 Las Cruces, Mexico 69 "Las Sergas de Esplandian" 119, 124 L*s Vegas, New Mexico 1 1 1 Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland: Staubbach Falls (duotone insert) Plate XI, 211-226 Lawrence, Frederick W. Origin of American State Names, The 104 Leash by which a hawk is held ill. 430 Leblon • Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ... 172, 191, 208 Le Capelain : Mention of 155 Leclerc, General Victor Emmanuel: Reference to 471 Leconte, Cincinnatus: Reference to 503 Leeds, Duke of: Falcon belonging to 440 Legends, China: Beacon tower 351 Le Maistre: Mention of 155 Leme Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Leni — Lenape Indians 107 Lenine : Photograph of ill. 526 Lenz, Frank B. World's Ancient Porcelain Center, The 391 Leogane, Haiti, West Indies 496 Les Miserables 161 Leighton, Sir Thomas: Letter to Peter Carey 151, 154 Lesson in Geography, .ill. (black and white insert) Plate XVI, 285-300 Levant 83 Lewis, Alfred Henry: Wplfville stories 71 Lewis, Meriwether: Mention of 141 Lhasa, Tibet, Asia ...263, 272,283 Licorice root, Antioch, Syria ill. 97; text 103 Li Hung Chang: Reference to 426 L'ile au Guerdain, Portelet Bay, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 163 Limestone, Haiti, West Indies 487 Limonade, Duke of 499 Limonade, Haiti, West Indies 480-482 Lin River, China 374 I,ine riders, Mexican border 79 "Ling Lung," see Rice pattern. Li Ping: Reference to 374 Lisbon, Portugal 190-191, 201, 203, 205 Litang lamasery 368 Literature, Mediaeval England: Falcon text, (color insert) Plate VII, 441-456 Little celestials at play. . (color insert) Plate II, 375- 390 LITTLE-KNOWN MARVEL OF THE WEST- Fi?N HEMISPHERE, A: CHRISTOPHE'S CITADEL, A MONUMENT TO THE TYR- ANNY AND GENIUS OF HAITI'S KING OF SLAVES. BY MAJOR G. H. OSTER- HOUT, JR., U. S. M. C 468 Livingstone, David: Reference to 227 Livingstone, David: Victoria Falls.. text (duotone insert), Plate I, 211-226 Local Courts, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 Loch Eil, Scotland 44° Lochiel 69 Lotna de la Tina, Santo Domingo, West Indies.. 483 Lombards, Italy 429 London, England 1 73, 334 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth: Keramos 398 Loo Club, Holland 429 Lookout Mountain, Tenn ill. 134 Lookout Point, Yellowstone National Park, Wyo. (duotone insert) Plate IX, 211-226 Loring, Alden: Red-shoulder hawks 465 Los Angeles, Calif 65, 77, 79. m Lotteries, Cuba 16-17 Lotteries, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 209 Louis XIV, king of France: Reference to 53, in, 483 Louis Philippe, king of France: Reference to.... 317 Louisiana: Origin and meaning of the name in Louisiana: Sugar cane fields of "2 Louisburg, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ..37, 39, 42» 46, 53. 55 L' Ouverture, Toussaint: Reference to 470-471, 481, 496 Lower California, Mexico 66, 74, 77, 112, 119 Lower Falls, Yellowstone National Park, Wyo. (duotone insert) Plate IX, 211-226 Lucalla River, Portuguese West Africa. . (duotone insert) Plate IV, 211-226 Lucky Cuss mine, Arizona 71 Lukis Museum, Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 Lumacarsky: Photograph of ill. 526 Page Lunch counters, Peking, China: Quick ill. 428 Lures for hawks ill. 430; text 435-436 Lutz, Dr. Frank E. : Reference to.. 228, 231, 235, 244 "M" McAskill, Angus: Boots of ill. 55 McAskill, Angus (Cape Breton giant) 55 McAskill, Angus: Waistcoat of ill. 55 McCurdy, J. A. D. : Aerial experiments 36, 50 McFayden, Lieut. Edwin G.: Death of 509 Maccabees : Reference to 85, 102 Macedonia, Greece 83, 102 Machine-guns, Siberia ill. 522 Machinery, China 391 Mackenzie, Catherine Dunlop. Charm of Cape Breton Island, The 34 Macleod, Rev. Norman: Hegira to New Zealand 53, 55 Madagascar 171 Magdalena, Mexico 69 Magee, Guy, Jr. "The Man in the Street" in China 406 Magellan, Fernando: Reference to 185 "Magellan, Strait of 33 Maharaja Deb Shamsheir's state visit to Patan, Nepal, Asia ill. 276 Maharajahs, Nepal, Asia 272, 276, 283 Maine 119 Maine (Battleship), Destruction of 5 Maine: Origin and meaning of the name.... in, 113 Maissade: Reference to 509 MAKING OF A JAPANESE NEWSPAPER, THE. BY DR. THOMAS E. GREEN 327 Mall, Raja Bhupatindra: Bronze figure of.... ill. 262; text 255, 259 Malta, Mediterranean Sea 143 "MAN IN THE STREET," IN CHINA, THE: SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREATEST UNDEVELOPED MARKET IN TITH WORLD OF TODAY. BY GUY MAC.EF., TR 406 Man Who Laughs, The 161 "Man with tbe Hoe." By Edwin Markham 369, 391 Manchera River, Nepal, Asia 283 Manclni Dynasty 374 Manchu House 423-424, 427 Manchuria. .363, 408, 425, text, (black and white insert) Plate XII, 441-456 Manchus, China 345, 349, 408, 423-424, 427 Mandarinate, China 423-428 Mango trees. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 171 Mangue Canal, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 186; text 195 Manila, Philippine Islands, Pacific Ocean 521 Manor House of Samares, Jersey, Channel Islands. English Channel 160 Maora, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323, 325 Map: Bahama Inlands and Cuba ill. (map) 4 Map, British Guiana: With an inset showing ter- ritory traversed by the "Kaieteur and Roraima" Expedition ill. (map) 229 Map, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. (map) 35 Map, Channel Islands: Showing geographical re- lation to France and England ill. (map) 151 Map, Cuba and the Bahama Islands ill. (map) 4 Map, English Channel: Showing geographical re- lation ol Channel Islands to France and Eng- land ...ill. (map) 151 Map. Guianas: With an inset showing the terri- tory traversed by the "Kaieteur and Roraima" Expedition ill. (map) 229 Map, Haiti, West Indies: Showing its two re- publics ill. (map) 489 Map. India. Geographical relation of Nepal to India, Burma, Kashmir, and Tibet. .. .ill. (map) 249 Map, Mediterranean Sea: Eastern shores of.. ill. (map) 89 Map, Mexican border ill. (map) 75 Map, Nepal, Geographical relation of Nepal, to India, Burma, Kashmir, and Tibet.... ill. (map) 249 Map, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 173; text 195 Map, Santo Domingo, West Indies ill. 489 Map, Society Islands, Position of Tahiti in the Mid-Pacific ill. (map) 303 Map, Syria ill. (map) 89 Map, Tahiti: Showing the position of.. ill. (map) 303 Marble boat, Summer Palace near Peking, China i". 351 XVI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Marble quarries, Proctor, Vt HI. "4 Marconi, Guglielmo: Referred to 47 Margaree River, Ca'pe Breton Island, Nova Scotia, MafgTree VaYley,' ' Cape "Breton' island, Nova ' Scotia, Canada • • • : •• 53 Market-place, Antioch, Syria. ............. •••1U- 94 Market-place, Khatmandu, Nepal, Asia: .goddess ^ Markets,' Papeete! 'Tahiti', ' Society' 'islands, Pacific Qcean 3°7> 311 Markets, Pin au Prince, Haiti, ^s^Indies ^ Markets, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 516; text 530 Markham, Edwin: Man with the Hoe 39* Marku, Nepal, Asia.... 247 Marquctte, Jacques: Reference to.... ••••.;•• I4* Marquez de Sfto Vicente, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. 201 Marsh, Cody: Extracts from diary of ...... .525. 53<> Marsh, Cody. Glimpses of Siberia, The Russian "Wild East" •• 5" Marsh, Cody : Photograph of iu. 533 Martello towers, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 103 Marthas Vineyard, Mass.: Forest hawks 461 Martinique, West Indies .....MB Martyr, Peter: Account of the voyage of the younger Cabot in 1498 •• 34 Marx, Karl: Photograph of ill. 5*6 Marx, Karl: Reference to 425 "Mary and John" (Flower), Siberia 5*3 Maryland I07 Maryland: Origin and meaning of the name.. 107, 109 Maryland, Size of . 4»9 Mason, John: Reference to ..105-106 Massachusetts Coast: Adamantine rocks of the ill. 131 Massachusetts : Colonists of 37 Massachusetts: Origin and meaning of the name 125, 130 Massachusetts: Size of 497 Matamora&, Mexico 64, 79 Matanzas, Cuba HI. 32; text n Matanzas Province, Cuba 21 Matariro (A Tahitian) 315,321 Matto Grosso, Brazil 201 Mauna Kea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands text (duotone insert), Plate XIV, 211-226 Mauna Loa, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands text (duotone insert), Plate XIV, 211-226 Mayne, see Maine. Meals, China : Public ill. 420 ; text 41 1 Mechanical devices, Ching-teh-chen, China 395 Medicine man, Cheng-tu Plain, China ill. 373 Mediterranean Sea 251 Mediterranean Sea: Map of the Eastern shores of the ill- 89 Menhirs, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 Merced River, Calif., .text, (duotone insert) Plate VII, 211-226 Merriment in Brittany. . (black and white insert) Plate XIV, 285-300; text 284 "Mesopotamia 83 Messala, Corvinus Marcus Valerius: Reference to 81, 83 Messina, Sicily, Italy: Earthquake 101 Metal-work, Bhutan, Asia 272 Metal-work, Nepal, Asia 250, 263, 271-272 Metal-work, Sikkim, Asia 263 Metchnikoff: Reference to 521 Methodist Episcopal Church, Ching-teh-chen, China 399 Mews (Buildings where hawks are kept).. text (color insert) Plate IV, 441-456 Mexicali, Lower California, Mexico 77, 79 Mexican Border, Along Our Side of the. By Frederick Simpich 61 Mexican border: Map ill. (map) 75 Mexican National Railway 64-65 Mexican War 64 Mexico. . .ill. 70, 72, 76; text 12, 47, 63, 65-66, 74, 80 Mexico City, Mexico 64 Mexico: Gateway to a cemetery ill. 67 Mexico: Haciendas 68 Mexico — United States boundary ill. (map) 75 Miami, Fla.: "Blimp Route" between Havana, Cuba, and n Page Michigan: Ore ai Michigan: Origin and meaning of the name..... 129 Micmacs, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada • • 37 Middle River, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada 53 Milch goats, Pinar del Rio, Cuba 21 Millais, Sir John : Mention of 1 55 Miller, Joaquin: Quotation from 1*7 Miller, Joaquin : Reference to 1 19 Milot, Haiti, West Indies 469, 473, 476, 479, 4°! Milot Valley, Haiti, West Indies 476, 479 Milwaukee, Wis 347 Min River, China 368, 374 Min Valley, Sze-chuan, China (color insert) Plate IV, 375-390 Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191, 210 Mine disaster, A., (black and white insert) Plate XI, 285-300; text 284 Mineola, Iy. I.: Flight from Stamford, Conn., to ill. 133 Miner, Roy W.: Mention of 228 Minerals, Haiti, West Indies 497 Minerals, Siberia 512,521 Ming tombs, China 365 Minnesota : Ore 21 Minnesota: Origin and meaning of the name 129, 137 Minor Han Dynasty, Sze-chuan, China 371 Mishigamaw: Meaning of name 129 Missionaries, China: American 374 Mississippi: Origin and meaning of the name.... 129 Mississippi River in, 125, 129 Mississippi Valley "i Missouri hamlet, A ill. 138 Missouri: Origin and meaning of the name.. 132, 138 Missouri River, Mont.: Moonlight scene on the ill. 126 Mitireu, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 325 Moctezuma Copper Company, Nacozari, Mexico.. 71 Mohammedan graves, China 365 Mohammedan Invasion 251 Mohammedan Rebellion 42<> Mohammedanism, Antioch, Syria 94 Mohammedans, Nepal, Asia 269 Mole St. Nicolas, Haiti, West Indies 469 Mollens family: Interest in falcons 435 Monastery of Simeon Stylites: Doorway of the ill. 96 Monkeys, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 210 Monoliths, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel OL 149 Mons, Belgium 42 Monroe Doctrine 5°5 Mont au Preter, Jersey, Channel Islands, Eng- lish Channel: Priory ill. 158 Mont de la Selle, Haiti, West Indies 483, 485 Mont Orgueil Castle, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 142, 156; text 155 Mont Saint, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 Montana: Missouri River at Great Falls ill. 126 Montana: Origin and meaning of the name.. 113, 126 Montreal, Canada 1 1 1 Monuments, Mexican border 63, 69 Moorea Island, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean... 311 Moreira Cesar, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, see Rua Ouvidor, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Morisco Restaurant, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 177 Morris, Clarence E.: Death of 5°9 Morro Castle, Havana, Cuba ill. Morro, Cuba: Fortress 5 Morro de Castello, see Castle Hill, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Morro Hill, see Castle Hill, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese: Cited 47 Moscow, Russia 535 "Mosstrooper" (Tiercel) 440 "Mother Hubbard," Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 311 Mother love., (black and white insert) Plate III, 285-300; text 284 Mother Palm, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 171, 194 Motor trucks, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 522 Moulin Huet, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel 155 Mount Amanus, Syria 82, 85 Mount Baker, Wash.: Boulder Glacier ill. 121 Mount Casius, Syria 83-85, 89, 95, 97, 101 Mount Corcovado, Brazil 191 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XVII Mount Elidik, Brazil 237 Mount Everest, Nepal, Asia 245 Mount Hood, Ore., from Vancouver, Wash ill*. 122 Mount Katahdin, Maine n9 Mount Katmai, Alaska. .. .text, (duotone insert) Plate XIV, 211-226 Mount Lebanon, Syria 85 Mount Mitchell Railroad, Rainbow Gap, N. C. ill. 120 Mount Silpius, Antioch, Syria.. ill. 97; text 82, 85, 88 Mount Weitipu, British Guiana 241 Mountain of Ten Thousand Ancients, China.... 350 Mountains, Jamaica, West Indies 488 Moving-picture theaters, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 205, 209 Moving pictures, China 416 Mulberry trees, Antioch, Syria: Cultivation of ill. 94 Mule Mountains, Ariz 71 Mules, China ill. 424 Muller: Antiquities of Antioch 89 Muller, Tames Arthur. Peking, The City of the Unexpected 335 Municipal Theater, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 187 Murepang River, British Guiana 237 Museum, Beinn Bhreagh Laboratory, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 47, 49 Musical instruments, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 302; text 311 "N" Naco, Ariz 67, 71, 79 Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico 69, 71 Nahr el — Asi, see Orontes River, Syria. Nanchang, China 393 Nan K'an, China 399 Nanking, China 409 Nanking-Nanchang Railway, China 406 Nankow Pass, China 352, 354 Napoleon I: Reference to 161, 471 Napoleonic wars 161 Narain : Reference to 262, 265 Narayain, Prithi: Reference to 272 Narragansett Bay, R. 1 106 National Geographic Society: Members of the. ... 195 National Library, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 187; text 175. 195 National Museum, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ... 195, 201 National Museum, Washington, D. C. : Phono- graphs 49 National Telegraph Office, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 Natives, British Guiana ill. 231-234, 236, 239-240, 242-243 Natives, Haiti, West Indies 489-490 Natives, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 Natural Bridge, Va ill. 118 Navajo Indians, Mexican border 74 Nebraska: Origin and meaning of the name 132 Nebraska River 133 Needles, Calif 74 Negro boy eating watermelon .... (black and white insert) Plate XII, 285-300; text 284 Negro soldier with gas mask (black and white insert) Plate IX, 285-300 Negroes, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 Neiba, Bay of, Santo Domingo, West Indies 485 Neils Harbor, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 55, 58 Neolithic man, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 NEPAL: A LITTLE-KNOWN KINGDOM. BY JOHN CLAUDE WHITE ; 245 Nepal, Map of, showing geographical relation of Nepal to India, Burma, Kashmir, and Tibet ill. (map) 249 Nepal Valley. Asia, see Khatmandu Valley, Nepal, Asia. Nestorians 2S I Neustria 148 Nevada: Origin and meaning of the name.... in, 113 New Albion, see California. New Brunswick, Canada 4° New England 151, 263 New Hampshire ill. 108, 128; text 114 New Hampshire: Colonists of 37 New Hampshire: Origin and meaning of the name 105-106 New Jersey ill. no; text 5, 10, 119 New Mexico ill. 141; text 61, 63, 67, 75, 80, in Page New Mexico: Origin and meaning of the name 133, 141 New Netherlands, see New York. New Orleans, La 11, 42, in New Year fair, Peking, China 348 New York 151, 154, 249, 301 New York, N. Y...ill. 104, 106-107; text i, 6, 11, 65, 363, 393, 513, S2i New York: Origin and meaning of the name 106 New York Stock Exchange, New York ill. 104 New Zealand 53 Newfoundland 50, 151 Newsboys, New York. .. (black and white insert) Plate VIII, 285-300 Newspaper, Making of a Japanese. By Dr. Thomas E. Green 327 Newspapers, China 327 Newspapers, Ching-teh-chen, China 398-399 Niagara Falls, New York, Ontario (duotone insert) Plate II, 211-226 NIAGARAS OF FIVE CONTINENTS, THE Duotone insert XVI Plates, 211-226 Niakpt, Nepal, Asia 259 Nichi Nichi, Japan 327 Nicknames, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 58-60 Nictheroy, Brazil 182, 191 Niganiche, see Ingonish, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. Nikolsk, Russia 521 Nimbuatar, Nepal, Asia 247 Nipe Bay, Cuba ill. 2; text 5 Nogales, Ariz 61, 67, 71, 73'74, 79'8o, 141 Nonamy: Mention of 155 Norman See of Countances 148, 158 Normandy, Duchy of 147-148 Normans i^y North Carolina: Mount Mitchell Railroad, Rain- bow Gap . ill. 120 North Carolina: Origin and meaning of the name 109, in, 151 North Dakota: Origin and meaning of the name 132 North River, China 393, 396 North Sydney, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada : Port 46 Northcliffe, Lord Alfred Charles W. H.: Refer- ence to Canadian troops 40 Norway: Seven Sisters (duotone insert) Plate XV, 211-226 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France 415 Nova Scotia, Canada: Cape Breton Island, The Charm of. By Catherine Dunlop Mackenzie. . 34 Nunan, Hon. J. J. : Reference to 244 Nymphaeum, Antioch, Syria 91 "O" Oakland, Calif 80 Observatory, Peking, China ill. 346 Occupations, China 419-420 Oglethorpe, General James Edward: Reference to in Ohio .. 5 Ohio: Origin and meaning of the name 129, 135 Ohio River... ill. 135; text 119, 129 Oklahoma: Origin and meaning of the name.... 133 Old Bay State, see Massachusetts. Old Hawking Club, England text 440; (color insert) Plate V, 441-456 Old oaken bucket, New Hampshire ill. 128 Old Summer Palace, near Peking, China 353 O-ma-to-fu stone, China. . (color insert) Plate VII, 375~39O Omphalos, Antioch, Syria 91 Omsk, Siberia 521, 531 Onion seeds, California ill. 123 Onions, Laredo, Texas 64 Onion-seller, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 206 Opium, China 425 Opium, Mexican border: Cargoes of 79 Oraibi, Ariz. : Indian Children ill. 140 Orators, Vladivostok, Siberia: Bolshevik ill. 523- _ 524, 527 Oregon ill. 122, 125 Oregon: Origin and meaning of the name 119, 125 Oregones: Meaning of the name 119, 125 Oreodoxa Oleracea (Palm Mother), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 17! Oreste, Michael : Reference to 503 Organ Mountains, N. Mex 191 XVIII THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Oriental Institute, Vladivostok, Siberia 525 Oriente Province, Cuba 19 Origanum, Oregon 119 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES, THE. BY FREDERICK W. LAWRENCE.. 104 Orinoco River, Venezuela 238 Orohena, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean . . 302 Orontes River, Syria.. ill. 98, 101; text 82-85, 88-89, 9i, 93, 95, 100-103, 370 Orontes Valley, Syria 101 Orphan Asylum, Ching-teh-chen, China 399 Ospreys (color insert) Plate XVI, 441-456 Ospreys, England 465-466 Ospreys, United States ill. 466; text 465 Osterhout, Major G. H., Jr. A Little-Known Marvel of the Western Hemisphere 468 Ostringer (A user of goshawks and sparrow- hawks) 433 Ouisconsin: Meaning of the name 129 Ouless, Walter William: Mention of 155 Owls ill. 464; text 458, 461, 463, 465, 467 Owls, Barn ill. 464; text 467 Owls, Barred ill. 464; text 463, 467 Owls, Great-horned. . .ill. 464; text 458, 463, 465, 467 Owls, Long-eared ill. 464 Owls, Short-eared ill. 464 Owls, Screech ill. 464 ; text 467 Owls, Snowy ill. 464 ; text 467 Owlshead, Rockland, Maine: Off ill. 113 Ox-carts, Cuba ill. 13, 15-16; text i, 23, 27 Oxen, Cuba ill. 13, 15-16; text 23 Oxen, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 175 Oysters, Port Phaeton, Tahiti, Society Islands 323 Ozark Mountains, Mo.. ill. 138 "P" Pacific Ocean: Tahiti, A Playground of Nature. By Paul Gooding 301 Pack-animals, Mexican border ill. 78 Paddy fields, Sze-chuan, China.. ill. 365-366; text 369 Pageants, Nepal, Asia: Semi-military 246 Pagoda near Hang-chau, China: Six Harmony (color insert) Plate XV, 375-390 Pagodas, China 345, 367 Pagodas, Japan 345 Pagodas, Paslipati, Nepal, Asia 259 Paharias, or Dwellers in the Hills, Nepal, Asia.. 249 Paintings on cavern walls, Lake Enriquillo, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 "Paiwari." British Guiana 243 Pakatuk Rapids, British Guiana 230 Palace Gardens, Sans Souci, Haiti, West Indies ill. 478 Palaces, Nepal, Asia 251, 254-255 Palaces, Peking, China 337, 341, 345, 353 Palanquins, Nepal, Asia 247 Palestine 103 Palm, Brazil : Splitting ill. 204 Palms, Cuba: Avenue of ill. 3 Palms, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Royal. .. .ill. 186, 194, 208; text 171, 195 Palmyra, Syria 89, 91 Panama 5 Panama Canal 8, 301 Panama-Pacific Exposition 23, 404 Pantheon, Lisbon, Portugal 203 Pfto d' Assucar, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, see Sugar Loaf, Rio de Janeiro. Paorai (A Tahitian native) 325 Papago Indians 133 Papara, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean Papeete, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 317; text 301-302, 307, 311, 315, 318, 321 Papenoo, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 326 "Parachute" (Prize falcon) 440 Paradise Valleys 71 Paraguar text, (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226 Parana River, South America text, (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226 Pari, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. 323, 325 Paris, France: Japanese newspaper correspondents 334 Parmak, Brazil 239, 244 Parrots, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 210 Pasadena, Calif 69 Pascua Florida: Meaning of the name in Pashpati, Nepal, Asia ill. 264; text 259 Page Passagers (Falcons) 433 Passchendaele, Belgium 42 Patan, Nepal, Asia... ill. 261, 276-277, 281; text 245, 259, 271, 283 Patriarch of the Flock, The (black and white insert) Plate VII, 285-300; text 284 Patronymics, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 58-60 Peacocks, Haiti, West Indies 491 Peasants, Siberia ill. 512, 526, 531 Pecos River 65 Pedralvarez, see Cabral, Pedro Alvares. Pei Yang Party, China 426-428 Peixoto, Floriano: Mention of 187 Peking, China ill. 418, 422, 424, 428; (color insert) Plate XIII, 375-390; text 407-408, 426 PEKING, THE CITY OF THE UNEXPECTED. BY JAMES ARTHUR MULLER 335 Peking University 345 Penn, William: Land grant of Pennsylvania 107 Penn, Sir William: Reference to 107 Pennsylvania ill. 109; text 5, 133 Pennsylvania: Origin and meaning of the name.. 107 Penobscot, Maine 119 Peons, Mexico: Nature of 63 Peoria, Ariz 69 Pepperell, Sir William: Siege of Louisburg. . . .37, 39 Perches for weathering hawks ill. 437 Peregrine falcons (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Peregrine roost, Post-Office, Washington, D. C. . . 440 Peregrines ill. 434, (black and white insert) Plate XIV, 441-456; text 431, 433, 437, 439-440 Peregrines, Haggard (black and white insert) Plate XIV; (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Peregrines, Pajaro Island, Mexico 440 Peregrines, Tiercel. ... (color insert) Plate I, 441-456 Peregrines, United States 431, 462 Perkings, Charles Elliott: Reference to 116 Pernambuco, Brazil 210 Perry, Commodore Matthew Calbraith: Reference to 327 Persia 251, 429 Persian Gulf 81 Peru: Mines 47 Petion, Alexandre Sabes: Reference to 471 Petrified Forest, Ariz 74 Petro I, Emperor of Brazil: Reference to 186, 201, 203 Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil: Reference to.. 201, 203 Petrograd, Russia 521, 528, 535 Pheasant attacked by a goshawk. .. (color insert) Plate V, 441-456 Philadelphia, Pa in. 109; text 6, 335 Philippine Islands, Pacific Ocean 501, 511 Phonographs, National Museum, Washington, D. C 49 Photograph taken in flight from Stamford, Conn., to Mineola, L. I ill. 133 Pi Yum Ssu near Peking, China 353 Piedras Negras, Mexico 65 Pigeons, Fledgling 435 Pigs, Haiti, West Indies 492 Pigs, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 319 Pilgrim Fathers 185 Pillar-saints, Syria 95-96 Pimas Indians, Mexican border 73, 77 Pinar del Rio, Cuba ill. 24; text 19, 21, 30 Pine trees, Lake Azuey, Haiti, West Indies: Georgian 485, 489-490 Pittsburgh, Pa 69, 521 Pizarro : Reference to 499 Plantagenets : Reference to the ill. 142 Plymouth Company j 05 Plymouth Rock, Plymouth, Mass 185 Pojarp Island, Mexico: Peregrines 440 Polariscope in a sugar-mill laboratory, A ill. 22; text 29-30 Policemen, China 420 Political parties, China 423-428 Politics and government, China 423-428 Polo, Marco: Falcon hunt in Manchuria. .. .text, (black and white insert) Plate XII, 441-456 Polo, Marco: Reference to 355, 371 Polynesia, Pacific Ocean 237, 301,315 Pomare, Queen 3I7) 322 Pompey: Conquests of IO3 Ponce de Leon, Juan: Reference to 60, in, 113, "5, 141 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XIX Ponies, Manchurian ill. 342; text 335, 34*0 Population, China 406 415 Population, Ching-teh-chen, China .'308 Population, Chung-king, China Population, Haiti, West Indies 480 Population, Nepal, Asia "245" 287 Population, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil '. .' ' 2oo Population, Santo Domingo, West Indies... 480 Population, Sze-chuan, China '.', ,69 Population, Vladivostok, Siberia.. " YiY tii Porcelain bone, China '.' ' ' 40! Porcelain, China: The World's Ancient Porcelain Center. By Frank B. Lenz 39I Porcelain glaze, Ching-teh-chen, China. . .ill. 395, 399 Porcelain ornaments, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 171 Porcelain Pagoda near Peking, China ..ill. 14S Port Arthur, Manchuria 521 Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies.. ill. 481, 486, 493, 495, 502; text 471, 481, 485, 492, 496, 499-500 Portelet Bay, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. T63 Porters, British Guiana ill. 231, 236; text 230-231, 233, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243-244 Porto Rico, West Indies 12, 14,497 Port Phaeton, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 321, 323 Portugal 165, 171, 175, 190, 201, 205 Portuguese library, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 175 Post-Office, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 518 Post-Office, Washington, D. C.: Peregrine roost.. 440 Potaro, Landing, British Guiana 230 Potaro River, British Guiana ill. 228; text (duotone insert) Plate XIII, 211-226; 229, 232, Potomac River: Great Falls (duotone insert) Plate X, 211-226 Potsdam, Germany, Imperial gardens 346 Potter at his wheel, Ching-teh-chen, China: A.. ill. 397 Potters' mistakes, Ching-teh-chen, China 405 Potter's wheel, China 401-402 Pottery, Channel Islands, English Channel: Neolithic 147 Powder magazine, St. Amelie Valley, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean: French 312 Po Yang Lake, China 391, 393, 395-396, 399 Praca Marechal Floriano, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 187 Praca Tiradentes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Prairie falcons, United States 462-463 Preaux, Pierre de: Mention of 148 Presidents, Haiti, West Indies 498, 501, 503, 509 President's palace, Port au Prince, Haiti, West Indies 496, 502 Presidio, Texas 65 Presses, Japan: Newspaper ill. 332 Preston, Cuba 27, 30 Preston, Texas 73 Princeton Center, Peking, China 353 Priory, Mont au Pretre, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 158 Prison camps, Siberia 535-536 Prisons, Haiti, West Indies 511 Proctor, Vt.: Sutherland Falls Marble quarry ill. 114 Protestant Church, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 321 Protestantism, Channel Islands, English Channel 148-149 Ptolemies: Reference to the 95 Punaruu Valley, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 303 Puritans, Channel Islands, English Channel 147 Purple Forbidden Palace, Peking, China 337 'Q" Quadruple Palm Avenue, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 1 86; text 195 Quail, United States 431 Quantico, Va 49 Queant-Drocourt line, World War 42 Quebec, Canada 1 1 1 , 143 Queen's bath, Papeete, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 317 Querns, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Ancient ill. 150 Quinta da Boa Vista, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. 1 86, 195 Quonoktaeut: Meaning of the name 125, 133 Radha Krishna Temple, Nepal, Asia.., ...ill. 254 Radisson, Pierre: Reference to 151 Rafael : Mention of Itl Raiatea, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean: Sacred mountain of ill 3O4 Railroad station, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 523-524 Railroads, China 421 I2e Railroads, Mexico .'.'.!..!!.'!!!?. 63, 67 Railroads, Mexican border ,..6v6s, 7i 7i 77 Railroads, Sze-chuan, China .361 161 Railroads, Texas f. .63-64 Rainbow Falls, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands. . (duo- tone insert) Plate XIV, 211-226 Rainbow Gap, N. C.: Mount Mitchell Railroad ill. 1 20 Rainfall, Mexico 55 Rainsford, Marcus: History of Haiti 50* Rajputana, British India 270 Rajputs 2'7l Raleigh, Sir Walter: Reference to 109, 118, 151 Rani of Nepal and her ladies-in-waiting ill 252 Raochow, China 393, 396,405 Rapti River, Nepal, Asia 247 Raxoul, Nepal, Asia 247 Readers, Tobacco factories, Cuba.. «-« Rebellion, England 3 420 Red River, Ark Red Wing (Airship)... SQ Redwoods, California | . 397 Reformation ' . . I4g Refugees, Vladivostok, Siberia -.515,531 "Red Queen" (Goshawk) . .text 459; (color insert) Religions, Channel Islands, English Channel 4! Religions, Nepal, Asia 247, 251, 259, 263] 269-270 Repository for babies, Havana, Cuba: Public.. ill. 33 Reptiles, Mexican border 75 Reservoirs, N. Mex. : Irrigation 65-66 Restaurants, China: Perambulating ill. 416 Restaurants, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 177 Revolution, Russia 5x5 Rhode Island: Origin and meaning of the name.. 106 Rhodes, Island of, Mediterranean Sea 106 Ribault, Jean: Reference to 109 Rice pattern, China: Porcelain, .ill. 400; text 405-406 Rice straw, Ching-teh-chen, China ill. 404 Rice, Sze-chuan, China 369, 371 Richmond County, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Coal fields 42 Richmond County, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Soldiers of 42 Richshaws, see Jinrikishas. Rio Branco, BarSo de: Reference to 190, 205 Rio de Janeiro, Bay of, Brazil 185 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil i, 42 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Map of ill. 173; text 105 RIO DE JANEIRO, IN THE LAND OF LURE. BY HARRIET CHALMERS ADAMS 165 Rio Grande 129 Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil 209-210 Rio Grande River 63-67, 69, 72-73, 75 Rio Grande Valley . 65 River boats, Ichang, China 356 River of January, see Rio de Janeiro, Bay of Brazil. Riviera, Switzerland i Rivers, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean... 309 Roads, Haiti, West Indies 499, 510 Roads, Nepal, Asia 245, 247, 268 Roads, Siberia 521 Roche a la Fees, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 Rockfeller Foundation, Brazil: Work of the 209 Rockland, Maine: Owlshead ill. 113 Rock-salt, Lake Enriquillo, Santo Domingo, West Indies 488 Rockstone Landing, British Guiana 229 Rollo: Reference to 147-148 Roman Catholic settlements, Maryland 107, 109 Rome, Italy 84, 88, 102-103 Rondon, General Candidp: Mention of 201 Rook's struggle with Bois-le-du, A 457 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona 74 Root, EHhu: Mention of 195 Roque Berg, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel 143 XX THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Roraima Mountain: Kaieteur and Roraima. By Henry Edward Crampton 227 Ross, J. K. L.: Tuna fish caught by s1 Ross, Prof. Edward A.: The Changing Chinese.. 367 Rostrums, Haiti, West Indies 49* Royal barge, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil iQS Royal Court, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel 147-148 Royal Palm Avenue, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 Royal Temple of the Goddess Taleju, Nepal, Asia 251 Rua Conde de Bomfim, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil... 191 Rua do Aqueducto, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 188 Rua Goncalves Diaz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 205 Rua Ouvidor, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 205 Rupert, Prince: Mention of IS1 Russia text (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300, 429, 513, 531-532 Russian Caucasus: Falconry (color insert) Plate VI, 441-456 Russian language S32, 534 Russians, Siberia 532-533. 535-536 Russo-Japanese War 521 "Ruy Lopez" (Merlin) 44O "S" Sa, Estacio de: Reference to 184-185, 187 Sa, Estacio de: Tomb of 185, 197 Si, Mem de: Reference to 185 Sabias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 173 Sacramento, Calif in Sacred River, Nepal, Asia: Bathers ill. 257 Sacres, India 439 Saddle Mountains, see Mont de la Selle, Haiti, West Indies. Safely through! (black and white insert) Plate IX, 285-300 Sailors eating coconuts and fruit, Cuba: American ill. 10 St. Amelie Valley, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 312 St. Anns Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 52; text 47, 53, 55 St. Anns, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 37. 55 St. Augustine, Fla in St. Christopher Island, West Indies 470 St. Chrysostom: Population of Antioch 93 St. Clair-sur-Epte: Treaty of 147 St. Domingue, see Santo Domingo, West Indies. St. Francis River, Ark.: Bald cypress trees.. ill. 139 St. George, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel : Wishing well 143 St. Helier, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel 147-148 St. Lawrence River, Canada 35, 60, 111 St. Louis, Mo 64, in St. Lucia, West Indies 228 St. Marc, Haiti, West Indies 482 St. Paul, Minn 63 St. Paul's Cathedral, London, England 39 St. Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands, Eng- lish Channel 147, 149. 155 St. Peters, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 37, 50 St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, West Indies 227 Sal, Nepal, Asia 254, 266 Salmon, Tati: Reference to 322 Salnave: Reference to 503 Salt, China ill. 368; text 371 Salt Lake City, Utah ill. 127 Salton Sea, Calif 77 "Sam Slick" 60 Sam, Vibrum Guillaume: Reference to 503, 505 Samara, Russia 536 Samares Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 159-160 Samovars, Siberia 530-53 1 San Antonio, Texas 64-65, in San Bernardino Valley, Calif 69 San Carlos, Ariz in San Diego and Arizona Railway 77 San Diego, Calif 77, 79 San Domingo, see Santo Domingo, West Indies. San Francisco Bay, Calif 119 San Francisco, Calif 71, 73-74, in, 301, 393 San Luis Pass 69 Page San Luis Range 67 San Pedro Valley, Mexico 71 San Xavier, Ariz 74 San Xavier del Bac Mission, Arizona 73 Sand-storms, Arizona 74 Sanitation, Haiti, West Indies 501, 508, 510-511 Sanitation, Siberia 535 Sans Souci Palace, Milot, Haiti, West Indies ill. 476-478; text 469, 478-479, 481-482 Sans Souci : Reference to 481 Santa Ana, Antonio Lopez de: Referred to 73 Santa Clara Province, Cuba 21 Sanf a Cruz River, Ariz 71 Santa Cruz Valley, Ariz 71 Santa Fe, N. Mex 65,111 Santa Fe Trail 74 Santa Luzia Bay, Brazil 185 Santa Luzia Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 191 Santa Thereza Hill, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. . .ill. 170, i 88; text 173 Santiago, Cuba 5-6, 1 1-12 Santo Domingo, West Indies. . .ill. 510; text 12, 185, 481, 483, 497, 499 Santo Domingo, West Indies: Discovery of.. 483, 497 Santo Domingo, West Indies: Language of 483 Santo Domingo, West Indies: Map of ill. 489 Santo Domingo, West Indies: Origin of name... 483 Santo Domingo, West Indies: Size of 489, 497 Santos, Brazil 185,201 SSo Antonio Hill, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 188 SSo Francisco Xavier Cemetery, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 209 SSo Paulo, Brazil 209 SSo SebastiSs, Church of, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 185, 191 SSo SebastiSs, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 185 SSo Vicente, Brazil 185 Sapucaia trees, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 195 Saracens: Capture of Antioch by the 103 Sark, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 146, 162; text 143, 161 SS Salvador Corres de: Reference to 185 Sasabe, Mexico 73, 75 Sassenach 40 Satraps, China 423 Saul, Apostle: Mention of 83, 95 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 1 1 1 Sausmarez Manor, Guernsey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill. 154 Savannas, British Guiana ill. 236; text 237-238 Saveritik, British Guiana 237, 241 "Sawanee River" 307 Schiefflin, Ed. : Mention of 71 Schools, Ching-teh-chen, China 399 Schools, Cuba: English 21-22 Schools, Santo Domingo, West Indies 510 Schools, Siberia ill. 534 Scientific Society of Georgetown, British Guiana 244 Scilly Islands, Atlantic Ocean 149 Scipios: Reference to 102 Scorpions, British Guiana 232 Scotland text 105, 319, 431; (color insert) Plate III, 441-456 Scottish Covenanters: Open-air sacraments of... 40 Scottish settlements, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 39-40 Screen cadge ; ill. 436 Sea of Galilee, Palestine 319 Sedan-chairs China ....: 335, 363 Segowlie, Nepal, Asia 247 Seleucia, Syria ill. 95; text 81, 83-84, 90, 92 Selecuids : Reference to the 95 Seleiicus I: Reference to 83-85, 88-89, 102 Self ridge, Lieut. Thomas E: Referred to 44, 50 Seven Sisters, Norway (duotone insert) Plate XV, 211-226 Seven Years' War 34, 39 "Shadow o'Death" (Goshawk) 440 Shakespeare, William: Quotation from 284 Shakespeare, William: Reference to.. text (color insert) Plate VII, 441-456 Shanghai China ...... ...336 391, 405, 413, 4*5 Shanghai-Nanking Railroad: Employees of the 408-41 1 "She" (Merlin) 440 Sheep, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Twinbearing ill. 4, INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XXI Page Sheridan, General Philip Henry: Opinion of Texas 63 Sheriff, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel ill- 155 SHIFTING SCENES ON THE STAGE OF NEW CHINA 423 Shoes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Wooden ill. 207 Shonew, Japan 329 Shops, Peking, China ill. 339 Shoshone Falls, Idaho (duotone insert) Plate XVI, 211-226 Showalter, William Joseph. Cuba — The Sugar Mill of the Antilles i Shrikes ill. 462; text 435-436 Shrines, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia 255, 259 Shrines, Nepal, Asia ill. 258, 270; text 247, 255, 259, 262-263, 274 Shrines, Patan, Nepal, Asia 259 Shrines, Peking, China 338, 347 Shrines, Swayambunath, Nepal, Asia ill. 270 Siberia 410, 425, 427 Siberia, Glimpses of. By Cody Marsh 513 Siberians 533, 535-536 Signal Mountain 77 134 Sikkim, Asia 255, 263, 272, 278-279 Silver Dart _ (Airship) 50 Simeon Stylites: Church of ill. 96 Simeon Stylites: Monastery of 96 Simeon Stylites: Reference to 96 Simon, General: Reference to 503 Simpich, Frederick. Along Our Side of the Mexican Border 61 "Sir Tristram" (Goshawk) 440 Sisagarhi Pass, Nepal, Asia 247 Sitka, Alaska 33 Six Harmony Pagoda near Hang-chau, China (color insert) Plate XV, 375-390 Skyscrapers, New York: Airplane view of.. ill. 106-107 Slavery, Brazil 201-203 Sleeping Buddha near Peking, China 351, 353 Smelters, Douglas, Ariz 69 Smiles (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300; text 284 Smoke, Pittsburgh, Pa text 521 Smoky, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 55, 58 Smollett, Tobias George: Reference to Cape Breton Island 34 Smyrna, Asia Minor 81, 90 Snake River, Idaho: Shoshone Falls. ... (duotone insert) Plate XVI, 211-226 "Snow birds" (black and white insert) Plate XII, 285-300; text 284 Soap-box orator, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 523 Social Democrats, Siberia 535-536 Social systems, China 419-420 Societe Jersiaise, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Museum of the 147 Societe Jersiaise, Jersey, Channel Islands, English Channel: Taking over of Mont Orgueil ill. 156 Society Islands: Map showing the position of Tahiti in the Mid-Pacific ill. (map) 303 Society Islands: Tahiti, A Playground of Nature. By Paul Gooding 301 Society of Colonial Wars 39 Society of Jesus, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Fathers of the 53 Solace (Hospital ship) 9 Soldiers (black and white insert) Plate X, 285-300; text 284 Soldiers, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 40, 42 Song of Rahero. By Robert Louis Stevenson 309 •Sonora, Mexico 66, 69, 71 Soochow, China 409-410 Soothsayers, China ill. 412; text 417-418 Sorcerers, Channel Islands, English Channel. .143, 147 Soto, Hermando de: Reference to 125 Soulouque, Faustin £lie: Reference to 503 Soup kitchens, Siberia: Traveling ill. 523 South African War: Cape Bretoner's participation in 40 South America 12 South America: Kaieteur and Roraima, The Great Falls and the Great Mountain of the Guianas. By Henry Edward Crampton 227 South America: Rio de Janeiro, In the Land of Lure. By Harriet Chalmers Adams .' 165 Page South Brabant, Holland 435 South Carolina: Origin and meaning of the name 109, in, 151 South Dakota: Origin and meaning of the name 132 South Gate, Peking, China 337 South Seas: Tahiti, A Playground" of Nature. By Paul Gooding 301 Southern Pacific Railway 63, 65, 71, 74, 79 Souza, Martin Affonso de: Reference to 185 Spain 113, 115, 154, 165, 185, 429. 483 Spanish-American War 8 Spanish Main, The 499 Sparrow-hawks, see Hawks, Sparrow- Sparrow's struggle with a hawk: House 460 Spenser, Edmund: Faerie Queene 109 Spiders, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323, 325 Sport of Kings (Falconry) text, (color insert) Plate VII, 441-456 Spraybrook, Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland. . (duo- tone insert) Plate XI, 211-226 Sri, Manju: Reference to 283 Stanley, Sir Henry Morton: Reference to 227 State names of English origin 105-107, 109, in State names of French origin in State names of Indian origin 105, 119, 125, 129, 131-134, 136-141 Mate names of Spanish origin 111-112, 126 State Names, The Origin of American. By Frederick W. Lawrence 104 Staubbach Falls, Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland (duotone insert) Plate XI, 211-226; text 310 Steamboats, California coast 74 Steamship piers, New York: Airplane view of ill. 107 Steel, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada.. 46 Stevenson, Robert Louis: Quotation from 320 Stevenson, Robert Louis: Reference to 399, 315- 316, 320, 322, 325 Stevenson, Robert Louis: Song of Rahero 309 Stockyards, Chicago, 111 521 Stone-carving, Nepal, Asia ill. 248, 254, 262, 275, 281-282 Stone workers, Sze-chuan, China 36.5 Stora Sjofallet Falls, Sweden. .. (duotone insert) Plate V, 211-226 Stores, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean: Chinese 307, 315, 321 Stores, Vladivostok, Siberia: Department 525 Stoves, Siberia: Brick ill. 530 Strabo: Reference to Antioch 88, 97 Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland 60 Strait of Canso, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 52 Straits of Florida i, 5, 19 Strait of Magellan 33 Stream at the foot of Mount Silpius, Syria ill. 97 Street sweepers, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 203 Street-cars, Mexican border city ill. 62 Street-cars, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 170, 210 Street-cars, Washington, D. C 62 Streets, Antioch, Syria 89, 91 Streets, Chicago, 111 335 Streets, Nepal, Asia ill. 261, 263, 268 Streets, Peking, China... ill. 336, 338-339; (color insert) Plate XIII, 375-39O; text 335, 337-338 Streets, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. ill. 186-187, 190, 192- 193; text 205 Strikes, Ching-teh-chen, China 405 Students, Peking, China 345, 347 Suez Canal, Egypt 301 Sugar Beets, California ill. 112 Sugar boat, New York harbor ill. 18 Sugar, Cuba: Bags of ill. 20 Sugar growing, Cuba i, 18, 23-24, 26-27 Sugar, Introduction of, to western world 24 Sugar Loaf, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 176, 179, 182-183; text 167, 169-170, 184-185, 209-210 Sugar manufacture and refining, Cuba ill. 17; text 27-30 Sugar mills, Cuba: Crushing cane ill. 17 Sugar plantations, Cuba ill. 15 Sugar-cane, Cuba ill. 12-14; text i, 23, 26-27, «9 Sukhanoff: Photograph of 111.526 Sulphur Springs, Texas 71 Summer Palace near Peking ill. 350; text 344-345, 350-35 J Sun Yat-sen : Reference to 427-428 Sundew (Drosera) British Guiana 232 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Sung Dynasty •• 404 Sungari, Manchuria ill. 5*8 Sunset, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. ill. 314 Superstitions, China 417-418 Surmgasi, Nepal, Asia 249 "Suspense"... (black and white insert) Plate XI, 285-300; text 284 Sutherland Falls, Proctor, Vt.: Marble quarries ill. 114 Svetlanskaya Avenue, Vladivostok, Siberia. .. 525, 529 Swarth, Harry S.: "Distributional List of the Birds of Arizona" 75 Swayamtnmath Temple, Nepal, Asia ill. 246, 270, 273, 275; text 263, 275 Sweden: Stora Sjofallet Falls. .. (duotone insert) Plate V, 211-226 Sweetmeats, Siberia 536 Switzerland (duotone insert) Plate XI, 211-226; text 105 Sydney, Australia • • • 1 Sydney, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada: Industries 42. 46 Sydney, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Subscriptions to World War fund 42 Sydney Mines, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada: Port of 46 Sylvania, see Pennsylvania. Sylvestre, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 188-189, 191 Svria: Antioch the Glorious. By William H. 'Hall fi Syria: Map of »"• 89 Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria 92 Sze, Hon. Alfred S. K.: Reference to 374 Sze-chuan, China. . (color insert) Plate IV, VIII- IX, 375-390 Sze-chuan, China: Eden of the Flowery Republic, The. By Dr. Joseph Beech 355 Sze-chuanese 365- 368 "T" Table Head, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 50 Tablecloths, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 308; text 315 "Tagrag" (Merlin) 44O Tahiti, Society Islands: Map showing the position of ill. (map) 303 Tai-Ping Rebellion, China 409-410, 413, 426 Tairua (Tahitian guide) 311, 315, 319, 323. 326 TAHITI: A PLAYGROUND OF NATURE. BY PAUL GOODING 301 Talung Monastery, Sikkim, Asia: Altar Utensils ill. 255 Tamancos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 207 Tamoyo Indians, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 185 Tanasse, Tenn 129, 134 Tang Chi-yap: Reference to 428 Tang Shao-yi: Reference to 427-428 Tantric worship, Nepal, Asia 251 Taotist temples, Peking, China 348 Taravao, Isthmus of, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323 Tartars 335-337, 342, 345, 35i, 353 Tatars, Siberia ill. 517 Taumari Tol, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia 259 Tautira, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean... 323 Taylor, Zachary: Fort in Texas, built by 64 Teakettles, Siberia ill. 532 Teapots, Ching-teh-chen, China ill. 400 Teapots, Lhasa, Tibet, Asia ill. 278; text 272 Tecate, Calif 77, 79 Tegeran, Persia 65 "Tell my sister not to weep for me".. text (black and white insert) Plate IV, 285-300 Temple of Apollo, Daphne, Syria 99 Temple of Heaven, Peking, China.. ill. 348; text 341, 344, 350 Temple of the Five Hagis, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia ill. 282; text 259 Temple of the Green Jade Clouds near Peking, China 353 Temples, Bhatgaon, Nepal. Asia ill. 260,262 Temples, Nepal, Asia ill. 246, 254, 258, 260, 262, 264, 270, 275, 281-282; text 251, 259, 262-263 Temples, Pashpati, Nepal, Asia ill. 264 Temples, Patan, Nepal. Asia ill. 281 Page Temples, Peking, China 337-338, 341, 347'348, 35i» 353 Tennessee: Origin and meaning of the name.. 129, 134 Tennessee River, Tenn.: From Signal Mountain ill. 134 Terai, Nepal, Asia 247, 272, 283 Tevas, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 309, 322 Texas ill. 132; text u, 61, 63-65, 74, in Texas: Origin and meaning of the name.... 129, 132 Thakuri, Nepal, Asia 249 Theaters, China 416 Theodore, Davilmar: Reference to 503 Thieves' Market, Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 516; text 530 "Three Gorges," Yangtze River, China ill. 358 "Three is a crowd" (black and white insert) Plate VI, 285-300; text 284 Thunder Bolts or Dorgis, Patan, Nepal, Asia 259 Thunderbolt of Indra, Nepal, Asia.. ill. 275; text 263 Thunder-God, Nepal, Asia ill. 275 Thurn, Sir Everard im: Reference to 238, 243 Tia Juana, Calif 63, 77 Tiber River, Italy 84, 100 Tibet, Asia.. 243, 249, 251, 263, 279, 283, 347, 356, 371 Tibetans 368 Tientsin, China 39 1 , 425 Tien-tsin-Pukow Railway, China 425 Tiercel gentle (color insert) Plate III, 441-456 Tigris Valley, Turkey in Asia 81, 90 Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. 165, 188-189, 191, 208 Timber, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 46 Tina Mountains, Santo Domingo, West Indies... 485 Tiradents, see Xavier, Joaquin Jose da Silva. Titus: Gate of Cherubim 89 Toa, Monsieur: Reference to 323 Tobacco, Cuba ill. 25-26, 28-29, 31 ; text 30-33 Tobacco factories, Cuba: Readers employed by cigar-makers 32-33 Tobacco, Pinar del Rio, Cuba ill. 24; text 30-31 Toilers of the Sea, The 161 Tokyo Grammar School, Japan: Baseball nine.. ill. 333 Tokyo, Japan 327, 329, 333 Toluene, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 46 Tomb of Henri Christophe, Haiti, West Indies ill. 480 Tom Thumb: Cited 55 Tombstone, Ariz 71, 74 "Tombstone Street," Bisbee, Ariz 71 Tomsk, Siberia 521 Toms-toms, Haiti, West Indies 482 Tongking- Yunnan Railroad, China 363 Tortuga Island, Haiti, West Indies 499 "Tostin" (Goshawk) 440 Tower of Babel 519 Tower on the summit of Beinn Bhreagh, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 43 Tow-path, Yangtze River, China ill. 359 Toy merchant, China ill. 407 Toys, China 349, 407 Toys, Peking, China 349 Trackers, Yangtze River, China ill. 359 Trade on the beach, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 305 Trajan, Syria 101 Transportation, China 360-361, 363, 368-369 Transsiberian Railroad 528, 531 Trappings and gear used in falconry ill. 430 Treasure chests, Christophe's Citadel, Haiti, West Indies ill. 472 ; text 479 Treatise of Hawks and Hawking. By Bert 433 Treaty of Bretigny, 1360 148 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 69, 73 Treaty of Segowlie 272 Treaty of Utrecht 37 Treaty of Versailles 346 Treaty of Westminster, 1259 148 "Tree of Justice," Haiti, West Indies ill. 474 Trees, Haiti, West Indies ill. 474; text 485, 487, 489-491, 493 Trees, Kio de Janeiro, Brazil •. 171, 195 Tribesmen, Sze-chuan, China 367-368 Trinidad Island, West Indies 24 Tripoli, Syria 92 Trotsky: Photograph of 111.526 Trout pool near Cheticamp, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill. 56 Ts'ao-K'um : Reference to 427 Tsar, The 521, 525, 527, 533 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXVIII, 1920 XXIII Tse Hsu, Prince : Reference to (color insert) Tsen, Mrs.: Reference to ^ .™' 375'^ Tseng: Reference to 426 Tsien-tang River, China. . (color insert) Plate XII; text (color insert) Plate XV, 375-390 Tsingtau, Shantung, China *..... 423 Tso: Reference to ! ! ! ! ! 426 Tszliuching, Sze-chuan, China: Salt industry 371 Tuan-ch'i-jui: Reference to 426-428 Tubac, Ariz 7l 73 Tucson, Ariz 7i 7* 77 Tukeit, British Guiana 230-231, 233 Tumacacori Mission, Ariz ' 7I Tumatumari, British Guiana '.'.'.'.'. 229 Tuna fish, St. Anns Bay, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada ill e t Tung Keng, China '.'.'.'.'...' 399 Turanian races, Asia 251 Turkey-buzzards, Bahama Islands, West Indies!! 492 Turkey-buzzards, Cuba 492 Turkey-buzzards, Haiti, West Indies 492 Turkey-buzzards, Jamaica, West Indies 492 Turkeys, .(black and white insert) Plate VII, 285-300; text 284 Turks, Mexican border 6r Tururaparu River, British Guiana 237 Tyler, President John: Mention of 132 Types, China ill. 339-34Q, 343, 346, 358-360, 364, 3o8, 373, 392, 395, 397-401, 404, 407-412, 414, 416- 422, 424, 426, 428; text 497-4io Types, Haiti, West Indies.. ill. 481-482, 484, 488, 490- 49i, 493, 495, 498, 500-501, 504, 507-508 Types, Nepal, Asia ill. 252-253, 256, 279 Types, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 198-199, 203-207 Types, Siberia ill. 512, 516-517, 520, 522-524, 526- 527, 529, 531-534, 536; text 519, 521 Types, Syria ill. 86-87, TOO Types, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 302, 308, 310, 316, 318, 320, 324 Typesetting, Japan ill. 330; text 334 Typhon : Reference to i oo Typhus, Siberia 535-536 "U" Ujatpola Deval, see Temple of Five Hagis, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia. Uliparu River, British Guiana 237 United Empire Loyalists, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada 39 United States 353, 43i United States: Along Our Side of the Mexican Border. By Frederick Simpich 61 United States Army Headquarters, Vladivostok, Siberia .525 United States: Bureau of Biological Survey: Study of birds of prey 460-461 United States Marine Corps Barracks, Haiti, West Indies ill. 502 United States Marines, Haiti, West Indies ill. 500- 501; text 498, 505-507, 509 United States National Parks... ill. 117, (duotone insert) Plates VI- VII, IX, 211-226 United States: Origin of American State Names. By Frederick W. Lawrence 104 United States Army, Mexican border ill. 64 United States — Mexican boundary ill. (map) 75 United States Naval Station, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba ill. 8-9 U. S. S. Pennsylvania 9 U. 5. .S. Arizona 9 University of Peking 345 University of Wisconsin 329 "Upa Upa," Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 302 Urga, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 169-170, 182, 210 Uruguay 200 Utah in Utah: Origin and meaning of the name 127, 141 Ute Indians, Utah 141 Utrecht, Treaty of 37 Uvalde, Texas 65 "V" Vacquerie, Auguste: Reference to Saint Peter Port 161 Vaieri, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323 Vaitapiha River, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific 3gC Ocean jjj -Og Vale Castle, Guernsey, Channel ' Islands,' English' Channel {\\ J44 Valkenswaarde, Holland: Falcons .'.'text! "(black .. „ and white insert) Plate XIII, 441-456 Valley of Daphne, Syria . ..93 99 Valley of Mesopotamia: Fertility of... . .81! 8s "Vanquisher" (Tiercel) '44o Vedado district, Havana, Cuba 7 Vegetable seller, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil..' .'ill 196 Vegetation, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean " Venders, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 196, igg' 206- 207; text 173-175 Venezuela 1 1, 227 Vermelha Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.. 170, 191' 210 Vermont . . . . m. II4; text 2l Vermont: Origin and meaning of the name in Vernal Falls, United States, Yosemite National Park, Calif (duotone insert) Plate VI, 211-226 Versailles, France ,s^ Vespucci, Amerigo: Reference to... i«c "Vesta" (Falcon) \\\\\ 44O Victoria County, Nova Scotia, Canada 36 40 Victoria Falls, Africa (duotone insert) Plate Victory (Steamship) ' I4S Vienna, Austria: Japanese newspaper correspond- ents ,,4 Villa, Francisco Pancho : Mention of .... . . . .' .' .' .' .' 71 Villegaignon Island, Brazil jge Villegaignon, Nicolas Durand: Reference to 185 Vimy Ridge, France A0 Vinales Valley, Cuba !..!!!!!! 5 Vinci, Leonardo da: Mona Lisa del Giocondo text, (black and white insert) Plate I, 285-300 Virginia : Natural Bridge T :g Virginia: Origin and meaning of the name 109 Visconde de Maranguape, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 201 Vishnumatti River, Nepal, Asia 283 Vladivostok, Siberia ill. 514-516, 518-520, 522-524'; text 425, 5M, 5i9, 521, 525, 528-531, 536 Volcano Lake 77 Volta Laboratory 47, 49 Voltaire: Reference to Cape Breton Island ' 35 Voodooism, Haiti, West Indies 482, 497, 500, 503 Vuelta Abajo tobacco, Cuba 30-31 "W" Wages, Ching-teh-chen, China 405 Wailang River, Brazil 238 Waistcoat of Angus McAskill: Two men wearing Walker, Admiral Hovenden : Cape Breton Island 42 Wallis, Reference to 301, 319 Walls, Chung-king, China. ... (color insert) Plate Walls, Peking, China ill. 424; ' text 341 Wan-Hsien, Sze-chuan, China (color insert) Plate VIII, 375-390 Waratuk, British Guiana 230 Warner, Charles Dudley: Bras d' Or Lake 52 Warren, Admiral Peter: Siege of Louisburg 37 Warehouses, Cuba: Sugar ill. 20 Washing-machines, Haiti, West Indies 507 Washington: Boulder Glacier, Mount Baker.. ill. 121 Washington, D. C. ...text 6, 62; (duotone insert) Plate X, 211-226; 334 Washington: Origin and meaning of the name 119, 122 Wasps, Tahiti, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean 323, 325 Water gate spring, China (color insert) Plate III, 375-390 Water-buffaloes, China ill. 364; text 369, 371 Waterbury, Conn 530 Water-carts, Mexican border ill. 66 Waterfalls, Africa. . (duotone insert) Plate I, IV, 211-226 Waterfalls, Brazil: Iguazu Falls. . (duotone insert) Plate III, 211-226 Waterfalls, British Guiana: Kaieteur Falls., (duo- tone insert) Plate XIII, 211-226 Waterfalls, Canada: British Columbia, Emperor Falls (duotone insert) Plate XII, 21 1-226 Waterfalls, Hawaiian Islands: Rainbow Falls (duotone insert) Plate XIV, 211-226 XXIV THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Waterfalls, India: Cascades between Preslang and Tannin (duotone insert) Plate VIII, 211-226 Waterfalls, Niagaras of Five Continents. . (duotone insert) XVI Plates, 211-226 Waterfalls, Norway: Seven Sisters (duotone insert) Plate XV, 211-226 Waterfalls, Society Islands, Tahiti: Fautaua Fall ill. 310 Waterfalls, Sweden: Stora Sjofallet Falls., (duo- tone insert) Plate V, 211-226 Waterfalls, Switzerland : Staubbach Falls . . . (duo- tone insert) Plate XI, 211-226 Waterfalls, United States. . (duotone insert) Plate II, VI, VII, IX-X, XVI, 211-226 Waterfront, New York: Airplane view of ill. 107 Waterfront, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ill. 166 Water-wheels, Cheng-tu Plain, China: Bamboo ill. 370 Water-wheels, Syria ill. 98, 101 Waters of Daphne, Syria ill. 84 Wei-hai-wei, Shantung, China 423 West, Baron Thomas: Delaware named for 107 West Indies 35, 60 West Indies: A Little-Known Marvel of the Western Hemisphere (Haiti). By Major G. H. Osterhout, Jr 468 West Indies: Cuba— The Sugar Mill of the Antilles. By William- Joseph • Showalter i West Indies: Haiti and Its Regeneration by the United States 497 West Indies: Haiti, the Home of Twin Republics. By Sir Harry Johnston 483 West Virginia: Origin and meaning of the name 109 Weyler y Nicolau, General Valeriana: Despotic rule of Cuba : -. 5 Wheelbarrows, China.. ill. 360;. text 361, 369, 413, 421 White, John Claude. Nepal: A Little-Known Kingdom 245 White Wing (Airship) ' 50 White Mountains, N. H.: Eagle Lake and Mount Lafayette ill. 108 Whoppers (black and white insert) Plate XV, 285-300; text 284 Widow's monuments, Yen-chau, China (color insert) Plate X, 375-39O Wilkens, William: Reference to 132-133 "Will o' the Wisp" (Falcon) 440 William, Duke of Normandy: March through London 147 Williams, Roger: Reference to 106 Winchester, England 148 Wings of Hawks ill. 438 Winter Palace, Peking, China 344 Wisconsin: Origin and meaning of the name.... 129 Wismar, British Guiana. 229 Witchcraft, Channel Islands, English Channel 143, 147 Wolfe, James: Siege of Louisburg 39 Women, British Guiana ill. 234 Women, China ill. 414, 417; text 410, 415-416 Women, Haiti, West Indies ill. 481-482, 488, 491, 493; text 496 Women, Nepal, Asia ill. 252, 279; text 245-247 Women, Peking, China 344-345, 349 Women, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 173 Women, Siberia ill. 512, 526, 529, 533; text 535 Women, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean.. ill. 302, 306, 316, 320; text 303, 321, 324 Women, Syria ill. 86, 100 Page Wood-carving, Nepal, Asia 250, 263, 271-272, 281 Wood-carving, Sikkim, Asia... ill. 256, 260; text 263, 266, 27.: Woodcocks 440 Woodpeckers, Mexico 76 Woosang Gorge, China 363 World War 334, 427, 429, 431, 513, 536 World War: Cape Breton's participation in 40, 42 World War: Channel Islands' participation in... 155 WORLD'S ANCIENT PORCELAIN CENTER, THE. BY FRANK B. LENZ 39I Wrestlers, Temple of the Five Hagis, Bhatgaon, Nepal, Asia ill. 282; text 259 Wu Kia Tung Tang: Meaning of 367 Wung River, British Guiana 237 Wu-Pei-f u, General : Reference to 427 Wu Ting-fang: Reference to 428 Wyoming: Origin and meaning of the name 133 Wyoming: Yellowstone National Park, Lower Falls (duotone insert) Plate IX, 21 1-226 Xavier, Joaquin Jose da Silva: Reference to.. 191, 201 Yangtze league of governors 428 Yangtze Province, China 426 Yangtze River, China.. ill. 357-359; (color insert) Plate V, 375-390; text 355, 357, 363, 369, 391, 396, 410, 413; (color insert) Plate XVI, 375-390 Yangtze River, China: Names for the 356 Yangtze Valley, China ". 408-411, 415,420 Yaque Mountains, Santo Domingo, West Indies.. 485 Yaqui Indians, Mexico 73 Yaqui River, Mexico 69 Yazoo River, Miss 125 Yellow River, China 408 Yellow Sea 251 Yellowstone National Park, Wyo. : Lower Falls (color insert) Plate IX, 211-226 Yen-chau, China: Widow's monuments .... (color insert) Plate X, 375-390 Yokohama, Japan 327 York, England 106 Yosemite National Park, Calif. . . (duotone insert) Plate VI- VII, 211-226 Yosemite National Park rangers. . (black and white insert) Plate XII, 285-300; text 284 Young China (color insert) Plate XI, 375-390 Ypiranga River, Brazil 201 Ypres, Belgium: Second battle of 40 Yuan Shih-K'ai: Reference to 404, 423-426 Yucatan, Mexico 32-33 Yuccas, Haiti, West Indies 487 Yu Kan, China 399 Yuma Indians, Arizona 74, 77 Yuma, Ariz 63, 72-74, 77, 79 "Z" Zambezi River, Africa : Victoria Falls . . . (duotone insert) Plate I, 211-226 Zemstro, Vladivostok, Siberia 525 Zeus: Reference to 83, 85, 100, 103 Zuni Mountains, New Mexico: Lumber cart. .ill. 141 VOL. XXXVIII, No. 1 WASHINGTON JULY, 1920 A/7^ A ((ri A\ ^L(Jr-\ COPYRIGHT. I92Q, BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. WASHINGTON. D. C. CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES BY WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER FOR long generations the Spanish people believed that somewhere in the New World there existed a land of gold and jewels, rarer and fairer than any discovered country. Ill-advised colonial policies deprived the Castilian Crown of the El Dorado its subjects sought — for such Cuba has be- come, because the world has developed a sweet tooth that must be satisfied. The rivers of sugar flowing out and the streams of gold flowing in are transform- ing the island that Christopher Columbus pronounced the fairest land he had ever seen into a realm where prosperity runs riot. They have made it the scene of a new romance of a thousand millionaires, with Havana as the Pittsburgh and sugar as the steel of the story. THE IMMENSITY OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY With a sugar production nearly doubled and prices more than quadrupled since 1912, one can readily see why Cuba is the world's El Dorado of 1920, and why sugar is its king. The imagination is almost overpow- ered in attempting to comprehend the vast proportions of the sugar industry of the island as it exists this year. The cane produced is of such tremen- dous volume that a procession of bull teams like those on page 13, four abreast, reaching around the earth, would be re- quired to move it. The crop would suf- fice to build a solid wall around the en- tire two thousand miles of the island's coast-line as high as an ordinary dwell- ing-house and thick enough for a file of four men to walk abreast on it. The sugar extracted from this cane would load a fleet of steamers reaching from Havana to New York, with a ship for every mile of the twelve hundred that stretch between the two ports. The great pyramid of Cheops, before whose awe-inspiring proportions millions of people have stood and gazed in open- mouthed amazement, remains, after five thousand years, unrivaled as a monu- mental pile ; but Cuba's sugar output this year would make two pyramids, each outbasing and overtopping Cheops. The wealth the outgoing sugar crop brings in is not less remarkable in its proportions. Four hundred dollars out of a single crop for every human being who lives on the island — a sum almost as great as the per capita wealth produced by all the farms, all the factories, and all the mines of the United States ! What wonder, then, that Cuba today is a land of gold and gems, richer than Midas ever was, converting Croesus, by contrast, into a beggar! (See pages 12- 18, 20-30.) AN UNPRECEDENTED DEMAND FOR CIGARS Nor is sugar the only source of wealth that our fair neighbor across the Straits of Florida possesses. Wherever men dine well, whether in Brussels or Bom- bay, Sydney or Chicago, Rio or the Riviera, Havana cigars follow the coffee. Never before was there such a demand as now for fine cigars. The masses in most countries may be impoverished as THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from American Photograph Company A MOONLIGHT NIGHT ON NIP£ BAY: CUBA This wonderful harbor, said to be the third largest in the world, is located on the coast of northeastern Cuba, across the island from Santiago. The fleets of the world might ride on its broad bosom, yet the outlet to the sea is so narrow that one could almost throw a stone to either bank from the deck of an outgoing steamer. The sugar industry of eastern Cuba centers around this bay. CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES © Underwood and Underwood OF THOUSANDS OF AVENUES OF PALMS IN CUBA As the traveler journeys through the island, such a palm avenue is to be seen in almost every landscape. Many such avenues once led to the mansions of rich plantations; but now in many instances the nouses are gone, the roadways are overgrown with tropical vegetation, and only the palm trees remain to tell the story of the changes wrought by the passing centuries. CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES the result of the nightmare of war through which the world so recently came, but both the number of those who insist on Havana cigars and the number of cigars they smoke have increased at such a prodigious pace that every factory in Cuba is being forced to scale its orders. One Havana corporation specializing in choice brands is said to have received an order for fifty million cigars. It could only undertake to deliver twenty million. Practically every Cuban factory has so many unfilled orders that each could run a full year without new business. THE GEOGRAPHY OF CUBA Few people appreciate either the di- mensions or the area of Cuba. If you were to place the eastern tip of the island — Cape Maisi — flush with Barne- gat Beach, New Jersey, on a map of the United States of like scale, Cape San Antonio, the western land's end, would touch the eastern border of Illinois, span- ning the five States of New Jersey, Dela- ware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. If those unfamiliar with the island are surprised at its length, a realization of its width, averaging only about sixty miles, likewise surprises. No place on the island is more than forty miles from the open sea. In area it is a Pennsylvania, and it has a population numerically equivalent to that of Georgia. Nature and history have conspired to make Cuba a land of enchantment. One approaches the island through sapphire seas. Its north shore, to the west of Florida Straits, is washed by the Gulf of Mexico and that to the east by the Atlantic Ocean; while the south shore is laved by the beautiful waters of the Caribbean. Both shores are fringed with myriad islands, idyllic spots unvis- ited by modern things. AMONG THE WORLD'S FINEST HARBORS No other land in the New World pos- sesses proportionately such numerous and wonderful bays. Most of them are distinguished for their bottle-necked en- trances, vast areas of water being en- tirely surrounded by land, except for nar- row channels to the sea, through which ships gain access to matchless roadsteads. An example of these splendidly shel- tered harbors is Nipe Bay, on the north- eastern coast. It is said to be the third largest harbor in the world. The storm- tossed ships of every sea might find peaceful anchorage there, with room to spare ; and yet the entrance is so narrow that, once inside, one seems on a lake rather than in a bay. Similarly,' at Santiago, as one passes the frowning bastions of Morro Fortress, the narrow channel seems thoroughly clogged with small islands, but once past these the voyager enters a broad and charming bay. The scenery of Cuba is as varied as heart could wish, and as the visitor journeys the length of the island, scenes of unrivaled beauty greet the eye — the low country is begemmed with valleys where innumerable avenues of royal palms wave their crowns of spreading fronds and lend enchantment to the land- scape. For one who loves mountain scenery, there are occasional spots where the Andes and the Rockies may be seen in miniature. The Vinales Valley, for in- stance, in the northwestern part of the island, has been pronounced one of the finest between Alaska and Panama. In many places the mountains are a veritable jumble of weird and fantastic shapes. THE CAU, OF HISTORY What stirring story of the Spanish Main — of buccaneer, pirate, and priva- teer— lacks a Cuban end or a Cuban counterpart? What terrible tale of na- tional suffering surpasses the agonizing days when the whole rural population, under the iron hand of Weylerism, was huddled into reconcentrado camps and starvation stalked in every household ? Outside of Havana Harbor, in the eternal calm that pervades the depths of the ocean, lies the shivered hulk of the battleship Maine, whose destruction by treacherous hands brought the banner of the forty-five stars to the side of the flag with one. Along the southeastern shore are strewn the wrecks of that Spanish Armada whose defeat on July 4, 1898, made Cuba Libre a reality. In Santiago one may sit at the banquet table where Admiral Cervera, with tears in his eyes, declared that on the morning of the morrow his fleet would go forth THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE bv Walter RuKeyser CHICKKN COOPS AT THE HAVANA CITY JAIL I CUBA The average Cuban is as fond of cockfights as the average American is devoted to base- ball. It would take a linguistic scholar to unscramble the bedlam of betting jargon one hears at a Cuban cocking main. to what seemed a hopeless battle, but a necessary one, since no Spanish sailor could prefer ignominious surrender to an honorable, though losing, fight. PREPARING FOR THE TOURIST The raw material for making Cuba an ideal land for the individual who seeks sunshine in the winter is certainly present in an abandon of richness. That much is still lacking in the development of this material is evident to any one who has taken "pot luck" with the rank and file of those v/ho fled from the cold and the snow of the north. Almost every person who visits Cuba on pleasure bent lands in Havana, and comparatively few get more than twenty miles away from that city's central park. If New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington were consoli- dated, the resulting metropolis would bear about the same relation to the United States that Havana bears to Cuba. The capital city is the home of more people than are embraced in the combined popu- lations of all the other cities and towns of the Republic that have more than 4,000 inhabitants. Its closest rival is Santiago, but that city has only one-tenth as many people. All of the big business houses in Cuba have their headquarters in Havana and some of the banks have built skyscraper homes. As half the country's urban population is centered in Havana, so also is half of its shipping. The city normally handles a greater foreign tonnage than any other port in the Western Hemisphere except New York. THE COUNTRY'S WEALTH CENTERS IN HAVANA Most of Cuba's wealthy families have Havana homes. During the past four years the net profits of the sugar business have probably exceeded the gross returns of any other four-year period in the his- tory of the island. The result is that perhaps no other city in the whole world has proportion- ately as Targe a wealthy population as Havana. Nor has that population reached its climax. Out of these conditions has grown a CUBA— THE: suGAk Mitt OF ANTILLES Photograph by Walter RuKeyser A VIEW OF MORRO CASTLE AND THE ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOR OF HAVANA FROM THE BASE OF THE SEA-WALL ON THE CITY SIDE OF THE HARBOR situation where dollars are even cheaper than they are now in the United States. Tens of thousands of acres of land are being laid out in residence sites, and the Vedado district, the Riverside Drive and the Sheridan Road of Havana, is being extended until it reaches farther from the Prado than Riverside Drive from New York's City Hall Square or Sheridan Road from Chicago's Loop. There are no advertising signs on these lots. But as one motors along one sees nestling close to the ground inconspicuous little boards, about a foot long, and half a foot wide, bearing the legend in Spanish "Sold to Mr. So and So.'; And Mr. So and So is usually some rich Cuban who has made a fortune out of sugar down in the provinces and is coming up to the capital for the social seasons. If not that, he is probably an American who likes to be reasonably near the country clubs, and prefers to live where the cocktail has not lost its legal status. The price of the lots is from one to three dollars a square foot, or from $43,000 to $130,000 per acre. THE TOURIST'S BILLS If high prices hit those to whom Havana is home, it is, of course, natural that they should strike the transient even more forcibly. Hotels everywhere are always the advance guard in the price climb, and those in Cuba have been no exception. There is only one hotel in Havana that gives anything like the American stand- ard of service, and its rates during the past season were $25 a day for an outside room with bath, without meals. It pur- posed to cater only to those to whom prices are no object; but that sort of patronage failed to develop in sufficient volume to maintain a full house. The other hotels charged rates of from $6 to $12 for accommodations far from as good as one gets at from $3 to $6 in New York. The result was that many people who came to spend a week or ten days moved up their return dates con- siderably, and the tourist population changed on the average every four days. The disappointments of the past sea- son promise for next year a saner ad- justment between rates and service. The Cuban National Tourist Associa- tion is working out a program which aims to lay a solid foundation for a steady de- velopment of a healthy, growing tourist traffic. Under this association's plan, every room in Cuba that is open to the tourist is to be listed as soon and as long as it meets the required conditions of sanitation and moral surroundings. 10 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © International Film Company AMERICAN SAILORS EATING COCONUTS AND FRESH FRUIT IN THE SHADE OF PALM TREES: CUBA The island is so long that the distance between Cape Maisi,-at the eastern end, and Cape ban Antonio, at the western end, is as great as that from the New Jersey coast to the Illinois boundary. Yet at no point in the entire country can one get more than forty miles away from the sea (see text, page 5). CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 11 The price of all rooms will be printed, and every effort will be made to secure chat general adherence to the principles of sound business and fair dealing which will win for Cuba the friendship of all who come and lead each of them to send others. Arrangements have been completed, and work started on the building of sev- eral large dirigible airships for the pur- pose of operating a passenger air line, with a daily schedule, between Miami, Florida, and Havana. The distance be- tween the two resorts is about 300 miles, and will be covered in approximately six hours, which calls for a flying speed of fifty miles an hour. The big "blimps" will have passenger space for from thirty to fifty persons besides the crew. Thou- sands of visitors to Miami heretofore have been carried to Havana on a small steamer, spending two or three days in the latter city on a personally conducted tour, and it is expected that the "Blimp Route" will prove exceedingly popular. THE: RAILROADS' PLANS In the past there has been much to dis- courage the tourist who wanted to go out into the provinces. The day trains have had no parlor cars, and the coaches usually have been overcrowded. The Havana- Santiago Express has been run on a schedule of 35 hours, with a distance of only 538 miles to cover. But next season some of the railroads intend to install facilities for handling the island's visitors in a much more sat- isfactory way. Parlor cars are to be put on day trains, dining-cars may be carried, and the running time of principal passen- ger trains reduced. Furthermore, in order to provide proper hotel facilities in cities outside of Ha- vana, some of the railroads are increasing the number of hostelries under their con- trol, and have plans for bringing their hotels up to satisfactory standards. When these improvements are insti- tuted and English-speaking conductors or interpreters are placed on the tourist- carrying trains, it will be possible for a visitor to move leisurely through the island to Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Cama- giiey, and Santiago. From Santiago he can go to Antilla and take a steamer either to New York or New Orleans. Such a trip gives a splendid view of the island, affords one a better under- standing of the country, and sends one back to the United States a better citizen, with a broader grasp of the fundamentals of America's international relationships. A DEMONSTRATION STATION IN INTERNA- TIONAL ALTRUISM Cuba may well be considered a demon- stration station where the theories of in- ternational altruism are under practical operation. When the United States took upon itself the burden of winning for the people of the island their independence, and then set them on their feet with a republican form of government, the world was amazed. Asking only that peace be maintained, and that the conditions essential to peace be observed, Uncle Sam retired from the island. Except for the effort of Jose Miguel Gomez to overturn the existing government in 1917 — an effort against which America promptly pledged its sup- port to a quick ending of the revolution — peace has been maintained since the in- tervention, and constitutional principles have been observed. CUBA'S PROSPERITY MEASURED This check upon revolutions and tyr- anny, this guarantee of protection for foreign investments, has proved an im- measurable boon to the Cuban people. Foreign commerce comparisons tell the story. Guatemala is larger than Cuba and is almost equal in population ; yet in 1918 the value of Cuba's exports was 35 times that of Guatemala's. Venezuela has nine times as much territory as Cuba and as mary people; yet its 1918 exports had only one-fifteenth the value of Cuba's. Indeed, the value of Cuba's ex- ports tha: year were twice as great as the combined exports of the eight coun- tries lying between the Texas border and the South American boundary. Less than three million people on less than fifty thousand square miles of land, with an export trade twice as large as that of twenty million people on nearly a million square miles of territory ! And that was in 1918, when export values in Cuba's trade were less than half those forecast for the current fiscal year! Was there ever such a measure of 12 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE prosperity as that, or such a tribute to enduring peace? Not all of this wonderful de- velopment has been due to the Arnerican protectorate, of course. But the writer, who has visited every country that touches the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and who has studied at first hand the people and the nat- ural resources of Mexico, Cen- tral America, the West Indies, and the countries of northern South America, cannot escape the- conclusion that a vast deal of Cuba's prosperity, as com- pared with that of its neighbors, is due to the blessing of stable government and a freedom from the stalking specter of devastat- ing revolution. Much to be regretted is the lack of satisfactory communica- tion1 between Cuba and Porto Rico. If it were possible to plan a trip that would carry the tourist to Havana, thence to San- tiago, thence to Santo Domingo, and thence to Porto Rico, one could see in a single six-weeks' tour the three stages of Latin- Arqerican development under the touch of the United States. Santo Domingo is a land that long has been revolution-torn, and has only latterly been com- pelled to travel the path of peace. Its soil is as rich as that of Cuba, its people are not dissimilar, but perennial revolution has pre- vented its development. When one gets to Porto Rico one finds a prosperity as great as that of Cuba, education more general than obtains in that na- tion, and everything possible be- ing done to bring the masses of the people up to standards of living, habits of thought, and freedom from disease that obtain in our own country. What I wrote under the title "The Countries of the Caribbean/' in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC for February, 1913, and in "The Wards of the United States," in the August, 1916, number, con- 14 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Edith S. Watson THE SUGAR-CANE ORCHESTRA: CUBA Everything moves to "the tune" of sugar in Cuba. Here is a little "band" of juvenile cane-cutters in the field. Sugar in the form of candy is not so popular with these island lads as the pure juice of the cane sucked from the stick. This scene may be duplicated all over Cuba from Pinar del Rio to Oriente in cane season. In the background is seen the growing cane. trasting the progress of Cuba and Porto Rico with other tropical American lands, has been emphasized by later develop- ments. OVER-ADVERTISING JOHN BARLEYCORN Many things in Havana beside its re- markable weather during our winter months interest the American tourist. From all the reports current in the United States, it might seem as if prin- cipal among these are the drinking em- poriums ; but, to the honor of the Amer- icans who visit Cuba, it is just to say that the journey of the vast majority of them has had no relation whatever to the en- forced flight of John Barleycorn from the shores of the United States. One sees comparatively few Americans drink- ing, and rarely indeed meets an intoxi- cated person. The rank and file of the native popu- CUBA-THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 15 Photograph from F. W. B. Hogge HARD GOING ON A CUBAN SUGAR PLANTATION There frequently falls, especially in the eastern part of Cuba, where the cane harvest runs far into the rainy season, as much as three inches of rain during a single downpour. The result is that the rich, deep soil becomes thoroughly saturated, and the teams of oxen have to bring every ounce of their strength into play to keep the cane moving toward the mill. lation drink, and a large percentage of them order the kinds of drinks whose "authority" is strongly centralized ; but the Cuban whisky glass holds little more than a woman's thimble, so that a stand- ard drink is barely more than a sip, and little drunkenness results. Probably no city has solved the prob- lem of cheap transportation more satis- factorily than Havana. Eight thousand Ford automobiles, operating within a ter- ritory whose radius is little greater than a mile and carrying one or two persons between any two points within this terri- tory for the sum of twenty cents, afford an individual transportation service that leaves little to be desired by those to whom the ticking of a taximeter is a mat- ter of moment. These cars look different from the familiar type one sees in the United States, for they have passed through the hands of Cuban upholsterers before going into commission, and these artists work a complete transformation. Any one who has visited Havana can appreciate how luxurious a Ford can be made. "Every little Ford has a decora- tion all its own," might be the title of a Madame Sherry song in that city. The tin and the imitation leather of dash- board, seats, and tonneau give place to mahogany for the dash, whipcord for the body upholstery, fancy carpet for the floor, and wonderful concoctions in rain- bow-hued leather for the seats. In a single car one may see five or six different shades of leather employed in the upholstery. For instance, the basic material may be gray grained leather. This is piped with white and has touches of red, blue, and green to give a piquant effect. The whole is set off by a decora- tion of silver studs. It may look a little overdone to the staid citizen of the North, but it is an optical feast to the riding public of Havana, and once one is inside the car it seerns to transform itself into a royal equipage. One forgets the lack of springs in the 16 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by American Photograph Company TRANSFERRING THE CANE FROM OX-CARTS INTO RAILROAD CARS ON A CUBAN SUGAR PLANTATION A modern sugar factory, or "central," as it is known in Cuba, may require 250 acres of cane a day to keep it running at capacity. Consequently, great areas of sugar land are tributary to each central, and a complete railroad system is necessary to supply the cane in sufficient quantity. At these field-loading stations the cane is weighed in the loading process (see text, page 27). cushions and under the car in his wonder- ment at the Cuban upholsterer's art. There are no speed laws in Havana, but there is heavy accountability for those who do not respect the rules of the road and who take the right of way of either pedestrian or motorist. The result is that the cars rush hither and thither like mad, but the reflex actions of the chauffeurs' feet and hands are so highly developed that they can start and stop more quickly, and swerve this way and that more adeptly than can be imagined by one who has not seen them. There is certainly much decision of character in a people who can produce such chauffeurs. The real spirit of the Cuban Govern- ment and people toward the Americans who make pilgrimages to Havana is shown in the little booklet of taxi infor- mation distributed gratis by the National Police Department. "You, sir," says the booklet, "have temporarily hired, or taken into your service, the vehicle number — . A Bu- reau of Information has been established, . . . which will furnish you with any information you need. ... In case of doubt, call the first policeman you meet, who will be glad to help you." LOTTERY TICKETS EVERYWHERE The masses of Cuba are lovers of chance. Lotteries flourish like green bay trees, and one has to run the gamut of human types in refusing to buy lottery tickets. Here is a wee bit of a girl, per- haps not'yet eight years old, who appeals CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 17 to you to take a chance because it will help her widowed mother; there a poor old woman of eighty wants you to buy, so that she may get a bite to eat. Now it is the elevator boy in the hotel, now the bootblack in the bar- ber - shop. Every- where you turn, a lot- tery ticket is before you and a vendor beg- ging you to buy. One regrets that there is no e ff o r t made to ban this busi- ness; but the Cubans seem to take it as a matter of course, and the masses are ever ready to take another chance with each passing drawing. Every city and town in Cuba has its cock- pit, and some of them possess several. Sun- day is a busy day for the roosters and their backers, and the en- thusiasm with which the habitues of the cocking main wager their pesos on their favorites is unlimited. The uninitiated spec- tator wonders how it is possible to un- scramble the bedlam of noise and to fol- low the changing odds. Photograph by American Photograph Company CRUSHING CANE; IN A CUBAN SUGAR MILL Hour after hour, day after day, week after week, the unending procession of cane is drawn into the crushing machinery and the sweet sap flows out. It is then mixed with whitewash and the im- purities removed as the evaporation process proceeds (see text, page 27). PLAYING JAI ALAI In the whole range of professional sports there certainly has never been de- vised a more thrilling game than jai alai (pronounced high - a - ligh), which has been transplanted into Cuba from Spain. It is a game that differs from tennis in that the court is a rectangle 210 feet long and 36 feet wide, with one side wall and two end walls. The floor is of cement and the walls of carefully laid stone. In- stead of the players arranging themselves on opposite sides of a net, as in tennis, and batting the ball back and forth with rackets, they occupy in common the play- ing space of the court. One side serves the ball against the end wall, and on the rebound the other side must drive it back against the wall. Thus it is kept flying from players to wall and from wall to players until one side fails to return it to the wall, when the opposing team scores a point. Instead of rackets the players use basket- woven affairs, crescent shaped, with one end laced to the right hand and 18 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Underwood and Underwood RAW SUGAR FROM CUBA BEING TRANSFERRED FROM SHIP TO LIGHTER IN NEW YORK HARBOR ON ITS WAY TO A REFINERY IN JERSEY CITY A fleet of sugar ships — one for each mile that stretches between Havana and New York, and each carrying upward of eight million pounds of sugar — would be required to move Cuba's present crop (see text, page i). CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 19 the other end free. The crescent is only about a foot long and three inches thick. A team of two players has to protect an area of 7,500 square feet, and some- times is forced to catch a ball on the re- bound from the wall at the far end of the court. To do this with such a narrow instrument as the cesta requires the ut- most agility, the closest calculation, and the most astute judgment. "MORE EXCITING THAN BASEBALL" Speaking of the game, a recent writer says: "Jai alai, the national game of Spain, is one of the most delightful things Americans discover in Cuba. It is more exciting than baseball, squash, and polo combined. Resembling tennis, inasmuch as it is played on courts by four men, it carries the onlooker on the crest of a wave of such suspense and thrills that he is enervated at the end of each game from sheer emotion. "Americans who have been content to howl 'take him out !' and 'attaboy !' stand on their feet and yell half an hour at a time when they see the four players from Spain in a contest that strains every mus- cle and forces the perspiration from every pore, so that the clothing is drip- ping by the time the first round is played. Not one frenzied spectator of the 4,000 ever sits down or stops yelling except in the intermission. Jai alai is no place for a contemplative attitude." SOME o? THE WORLD'S LARGEST CLUBS IN HAVANA Havana has some of the largest clubs in the world. There are no more clan- nish folk anywhere than the people from the several provinces of Spain. Those who have come from Galicia and their descendents have their club ; those from Asturias have theirs, and so on. The Centro Gallego, or club of Galicia, has 43,000 members, and its club - house, which includes the National Theater, cost nearly a million dollars. The Centro Asturiano has a membership of 36,000. The Clerks' Club has a membership of 30,000. The dues in each club are $1.50 per month, and each maintains its own hospital and sanitarium. Cuba has six provinces, the largest, Oriente, having an area somewhat larger than the State of Maryland, and the smallest, Havana, being slightly larger than Delaware. Yet each is so different from the other five that it is hard to dis- miss them with a word. The very at- mosphere seems different. At the westernmost end of the island is the province of Pinar del Rio. It pro- duces less sugar than any other province, and therefore is the least prosperous, even though it does produce the finest tobacco in the world. As one travels through the province, all the intrusions of American civilization are left behind, the terminal moraines of Anglo-Saxon culture are swallowed up in the plains of native life, and the only thing that sounds or looks homelike to a Washingtonian is the whistle of a loco- motive and an occasional box-car, bearing the name of a railroad in the States, which came across Florida Straits on the Key West-Havana ferry, loaded with flour, and will carry a load of sugar back to the Middle West. The towns are thoroughly Latin, and the country districts, except for an oc- casional tobacco plantation and a few sugar centrals, seem entirely given over to a black and mulatto population, which appears content to live in thatch-roofed shacks. PIGS, PONIES, AND GOATS The animal life of Pinar del Rio prov- ince consists largely of dogs, chickens, pigs, ponies, and goats, in numbers rank- ing in the order named. Dogs one sees everywhere — little dogs, big dogs, lean dogs, fat dogs, but all of them lazy dogs. Of chickens, each shack-hold has a few, none of which would take a prize at a poultry show, though some of them might hold their own at a cocking main. There are many pigs to be seen as one journeys through the country, but most of them are of an architectural outline that makes the Appalachian razor-back seem a prosperous porker. Each one of them is anchored fast to a peg in the ground, tethered by a rope. This is made fast to the pig in a fearful and wonderful way. If the noose were fastened around the neck only, his porkship could back out without difficulty, since his head is usually smaller than his neck. So it is passed around the pig in front of one shoulder, and behind the opposite leg, 20 CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 21 and then drawn tight enough to keep him from backing out of it or creeping through it. The horses one sees in rural Pinar del Rio are between the Texas and the Shet- land pony in size and so thin that one wonders that they can make a shadow. The white splotches all over their bodies are eloquent witnesses to the countless times that saddle and harness and spur have laid bare the raw flesh. Though the ground will grow two crops of corn a year, the Pinar del Rio pony never sees an ear of it and must be content to sub- sist on the grass in the plot of which his tether is the radius. Milch goats, which are the cows of Pinar del Rio, seem to be the one species of animal able, as a class, to look fat and sleek. Havana Province is more prosperous, looks half American, and seems like southern Florida and cane-growing Lou- isiana in one. Crossing the boundary into Matanzas Province, one gets deep into the sugar belt. Vast areas as flat as a floor are covered with sugar-cane. On every horizon the green of the growing cane meets the blue of an arching sky, with a huge sugar central — a sugar mill and radiating railroad — in every land- scape. IN THE EASTERN PART OF THE ISLAND Santa Clara Province lies next to the east, and one finds here, as one travels to its eastern border, the sugar industry gradually yielding place to the cattle- growing business, which in turn reaches its high tide in Camaguey. This latter province has wonderful areas of guinea- grass and other pastures on which cattle get as fat and sleek as if feasting on en- silage and cotton-seed meal on an Iowa farm. Camaguey is a little larger than Ver- mont, while Santa Clara is about the size of New Hampshire. Oriente is the Texas of Cuba, the larg- est and the newest of the bonanza lands within the Island Republic. A few years ago the soil of Oriente was thought unfit for sugar-growing, but today it produces more than any other province, and its development is only well begun. The largest centrals in the whole island are located there. Cuba's principal iron deposits also are in Oriente. At Daiquiri, on the south coast, is a veritable mountain of hematite ore, which, under the sway of the Amer- ican steam-shovel, has been terraced until it seems to be a vast pyramid. On the north coast are large deposits of ore-bearing mud, which, when sufficient drying facilities are installed, promise to yield millions of tons of iron ore right at deep water. That Cuban ores will com- pete with Minnesota and Michigan ores at the eastern furnaces, in the years ahead, is the belief of those who know the situation. ENGUSH IN CUBAN SCHOOLS Cuba has just begun an experiment fraught with many possibilities in Latin- American relations. Many forward- looking Cubans have come to realize that Spanish is no longer the chief language of commerce, and that the inability of the people to speak English is a barrier to progress, since most of the business of the Republic is done with English-speak- ing people. Therefore, experimental schools in Eng- lish have been established, and the prog- ress being made justifies the hope that in a generation or two Cuba will place her- self in linguistic accord with the peoples with whom she has to deal. I visited one of these schools, and the work being done was both a revelation and an inspiration. The teacher was a young woman of Cuban extraction, born and educated in New York. Her class had in it a score of typical Cuban boys, sons of small merchants and work-a-day folk. The teacher was a born instructor. "Now I sing and laugh with joy. What do you say of me when I do that?" she queried. "You are happy," responded the chorus of youngsters, their voices as much "in step" as a West Point cadet company. "Now I bury my face in my hands and the tears flow from my eyes. What do you say I am doing?" "You are crying," they responded as one. "What is the subject and what the predicate in the sentence, 'I cry'?" she queries. " T is the subject and 'cry* the predicate," they respond. " T is a pro- 22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Underwood and Underwood OPERATING THE POLARISCOPE IN A SUGAR-MILL LABORATORY If a wind is blowing through a paling fence, only the straws carried in a vertical position by it can get through. The others are stopped by the fence. In the same way, only those rays of light which are, let us say, upright can get through the prism of a polariscope. These are called polarized rays. If they are passed through a solution of sugar, after passing through the prism, they are no longer upright, but lean to one side, so to speak, and are therefore unable to get through a second prism, which looks dark to the operator. He turns this prism around until its axis is parallel to the plane of the rays of light seeking to pass through it, and the distance he has to turn the prism before the light can come through tells him exactly how much the rays were deflected from an upright position in passing through the sugar, and therefore exactly how pure or impure the sugar solution is (see page 30). noun, first person, singular, and 'cry' is the present tense of the verb 'to cry/ " they answer. And so it goes. Every boy is so eager to answer that as a class they seem almost to fall over themselves in their effort to be first. They show a quickness in grasp- ing the significance of number, tense, and mood that amazes the beholder. Under such a teacher, learning English is plainly a joy to the pupils. As soon as the teacher problem can be met adequately, the lan- guage of Shakespeare and O. Henry will be widely taught in the public schools. CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 23 CUBA'S SUGAR INDUSTRY As stated in the beginning of this arti- cle, sugar is king in Cuba. Even in nor- mal years it is the principal source of wealth. But with the restraints of "price- fixing" regulations removed, 1920 is des- tined to outdo any other year in the his- tory of the industry. Sugar-cane is grown by three classes of planters in Cuba. Perhaps the major part of the crop is grown by share farm- ers, or "colonos," as they are called. The owners of the sugar-mills furnish them with a given number of acres of land to plant and give them an agreed share of the sugar they produce. The next class is composed of the land- owning farmers, who grow their own cane and have it ground on shares, after the fashion of the rural grist-mill. The remainder of the cane is grown by the owners of the mills themselves. At some centrals the "administration" cane, as that grown under "central" management is known, amounts to only 4 per cent of the total ; at others it amounts to 90 per cent. THE PROFITS OF THE: PLANTERS Even the share farmer, at pre-war prices, made money. According to "Cuba Before the World," the official handbook of the Republic at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, when sugar was selling at 2.62 cents a pound, his share of the sugar brought him, on the basis of twelve sacks to the acre, a return of from $46 to $51 per acre. The return of the planter own- ing his land was from $56 to $61 per acre. When one remembers that the sell- ing price of sugar is from four to six times as high in 1920 as it was then, the size of the per-acre income today is ap- parent. How much net profit the cane-grower reaps at 1920 prices is hard to estimate, but that it is large will appear when the methods of cane-growing are stated. To begin with, after the first crop the planter does not have to bother with seed-time for about ten years. The soil is so deep and so fertile that one planting produces ten harvests. Neither does cultivation bother him after the first season, for the blades stripped from one crop form a mulch that keeps the weeds from com- peting with the next one. Think of the profits that the American farmer would make out of corn if he could get ten crops from one planting, and did not have to plow nine of them at all to keep down the weeds ! THE: WORLD'S CHEAPEST MOTIVE POWER Another item in the low cost of produc- ing sugar is the cheapness of the motive power. The cane is hauled, in ox-carts. The oxen live from six to ten months a year on the blades stripped from the harvested stalks, and the remainder of the year on succulent guinea-grass. Think how prosperous would be the American farmer if he could have animal motive power requiring not a pound of grain to feed it ! A great deal of the cane land produces much more sugar to the acre than the modest twelve bags that formed the basis of the calculations cited from "Cuba Be- fore the World." According to figures furnished the writer by the Cuban De- partment of Agriculture, much land pro- duces 22 bags to the acre. This, at 15 cents a pound, brings a gross return of more than $1,000 an acre. These conditions have brought about an unprecedented boom in sugar lands. One sugar estate, which was bought some three years ago for $3,000,000, sold last January for $9,500,000. Another, which was valued at about $6,000,000 a few years ago, changed hands at $15,000,000. Numerous new "centrals" are being built and others projected, all being capi- talized on the basis of this year's earn- ings. Thousands of American capitalists are investing in these flourishing enter- prises. That the famine scale of prices of this year will not continue is the opinion of those who are in a position to know. Just as soon as the European sugar beet comes back into cultivation, price levels are bound to fall. Many warnings have been 'sounded about the singularity of the source of Cuba's fortune. Economic safety is op- posed to having too many of one's eggs in a single basket. But Cuba believes in making hay while the sun shines, though that hay be sugar and that sun the su- crose hunger of the world. How her receipts from sugar have ex- panded is shown by the fact that the 1915 24 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE crop brought a total return of less than two hundred million dollars, while the 1920 crop will bring more than a billion dollars. A ROMANCE OF MODERN INDUSTRY The story of cane and the production of sugar from it is a romance of modern industry. The first that the western world knew about sugar was when traders from India brought to England a substance of amazing sweetness, which the Londoners called "Indian salt." It was so pleasing to the occidental palate that the plant from which it was made was brought out of Bengal and cul- tivated around the world. Today it belts the earth wherever long summers reign and plenty of moisture and soil fertility are found. For many centuries it was propagated by planting after the fashion of potatoes, short pieces of the upper section of the stalk being put into furrows and covered. This was done so long that practically all of its ability to set seed, like the Irish potato and the horse-radish, was bred out of it. One day an English physician living on the little island of Trinidad, on the north coast of South America, told a sugar- planter that the grass-like plants coming up here and there in the cane fields were in reality survivals of the time when cane set seed. The planter laughed at him and said they were nothing but stalks of grass. Both were right, for cane is a grass, and the plants in question did bear seed. From that little observation has grown the improvement of the cane of the world, which has resulted, through the introduc- tion of improved varieties, in billions of pounds of sugar being supplied to man that, under other conditions, could not have been produced. Cuba has the advantage of every other country in producing sugar cheaply. Most countries have to plant every two years and some of them every season, but the average in Cuba is once in from 7 to 12 years. THE CUBAN SUGAR SEASON. In most parts of the island the harvest- ing season is six months long — from December to June ; but in some sections £ ° H -s-gs 2 |p S gll O *S to, U _,' U c £0 rt o rt £ o O p-= i°J ~ % p o rt u- rt bJO w §,.5 26 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by American Photograph Company GATHERING THE MATURE LEAVES IN A CUBAN TOBACCO FIELD The most famous tobacco in the world grows in the westernmost province of Cuba — Pinar del Rio. The planter frequently gets as much as five thousand dollars an acre for his crop. In order to keep their product uniform, many manufacturers own their own farms and spend fortunes in fertilizers to keep the soil in the condition requisite to meet the most exacting demands for flavor, texture, and yield. the harvest lasts from the first of Decem- ber to the first of October. The fields are so planted in the first place that each month of the grinding season produces its own crop of mature cane. Here is a group of fields where the new crop has just sprouted ; over yonder another group where the cane is half grown; and on farther is a group where harvesting op- erations are in full swing. In harvesting, the cane-cutters first strip the blades from the stalk ; then they cut off the upper part of the latter, which is worthless except for replanting, since what juice it contains possesses very little sugar. One of the strange things about sugar-cane is that the sap of the growing plant has little sugar, while in the mature stalk the juice is rich in sucrose. The action of the sun's rays seems -to trans- form glucose into sucrose — a transforma- tion that cannot be accomplished by CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 27 human means. If man knew how to do that, every corn-field would be a sugar- field. The main body of the stalk is cut down and loaded into the ox-carts as shown on page 13. In these it is hauled to the field station and placed in the waiting cars. Each car contains about twenty tons and each train is made up of thirty cars. This makes six hundred tons of cane to the trainload, and eight to ten trainloads a day are required to keep one of the bigger centrals in operation for twenty-four hours. The big United Fruit central, at Preston, requires the crop from 250 acres every day to keep it busy. Imagine a field three-fifths of a mile square being harvested between sun-up and sundown to keep one central going! WHEN THE: CANE REACHES THE MIIJ, When the cane reaches the mill in the most modern plants, the cars are run, one by one, into a cradle and made fast thereto. A button is pressed and the cradle rocks over on one side. The side of the car swings loose and the load rolls out into a deep trench, at the bottom of which is an endless steel belt. On this belt the cane is carried up to the crushing rolls. A man stands before a keyboard and by pressing the several electric buttons thereon regulates the flow through the crusher, which disrupts all the little sap cells and releases a great stream of foamy juice, as shown on page 17. Then the crushed cane is sent through sets of rollers, each time under heavy pressure. Each set of rolls the cane passes through presses it harder than the one before. The last set may exert a press- ure of a million pounds, and when the "bagasse," as the crushed cane is called, issues from them it is almost as dry as tinder. It is carried by conveyers to the fire-boxes of the boilers, where it is used as fuel in generating the steam that drives the big mills and boils the cane juice. The stream of crushed cane flows through the last set of rolls at' a speed of seven miles a day. MIXING WHITEWASH WITH CANE JUIC^ Imagine big gear-wheels fourteen feet in diameter, with cogs sixteen inches long, three inches deep, and two inches thick on their face. Such are the trains of gears that transmit the power from the engines to the rolls. After the juice is pressed out of the cane it is thoroughly strained and pumped into big tanks at the top of the building, where a milk-of-lime solution — in other words, plain whitewash — is added. The mixture is then heated to a degree just above the boiling-point. The lime neutralizes the acid in the juice and finds affinities in some of the foreign sub- stances. It pulls these to the bottom and plays the same role of purifier in the making of sugar that it plays in the mak- ing of iron. The heat causes the other impurities to rise to the surface as scum, so that when this preliminary process is completed in the big settling tanks there is a top layer of froth, a middle layer of clear juice, and a bottom layer of mud- like solid material. The clear juice is drawn off and passed through filters of excelsior. It is then pumped to the evaporators, where about half of the water is boiled out of it. HOW THE MODERN EVAPORATOR WORKS In the more modern factories there is a chain of four evaporators working to- gether. We all learned in our school days that the lighter the air pressure, the lower the temperature at which liquids boil. The sugar manufacturer makes use of that principle in his factory. By means of air pumps he reduces the atmospheric pressure in each evaporator to a point below that of the preceding one. The steam that boils the juice in the first evaporator must have a temperature of 215° Fahrenheit. When this steam falls below that temperature it passes into the coils of the second evaporator, where the air pressure is so reduced that the partially cooled steam makes the liquid boil at 203°. After it falls below that point the steam passes on to the third evaporator, where, with a still further reduced air pressure, it is able to keep the syrup boiling until it falls below 180°. The fourth evaporator has the air pres- sure reduced to a practical vacuum. The steam that has lost so much of its heat as to be unable to maintain the boiling- point in the third is nevertheless hot enough to keep the juice boiling in the fourth. Here only 150° of heat is needed 28 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by American Photograph Company CURING WRAPPER LEAVES IN A CUBAN TOBACCO BARN The best Havana cigars are made from tobacco that has undergone a curing process lasting more than two years (see text, page 32). to maintain the boiling process. By this arrangement the juice is boiled to the proper consistency with only one-fourth of the heat otherwise required. The next step in the making of sugar is to draw the thick juice into the vacuum pans. Here it comes into contact with hot steam coils and boils at a very low temperature because of the absence of atmospheric pressure. As the boiling proceeds, the sugar crystallizes into small grains. The man in charge of a big vacuum pan is known as the sugar mas- ter. From time to time he adds fresh juice, and its sugar gradually settles on the crystals already formed, which thus are made to grow larger. Finally the vacuum pan becomes full of sugar and mother syrup. The sugar and the adhering syrup are then removed to a centrifugal machine that acts some- what on the principle of a cream sepa- rator. Placed inside a perforated basket and whirled around at from 1,000 to 1,400 revolutions a minute, all of the syrup is forced out through the perfora- tions, while the crystallized sugar re- mains behind. This syrup is boiled again, after which it goes to the crystallizer, a huge revolv- ing tank, in which a seed bed of crystals from the vacuum pan has been prepared. There it gradually deposits its sweetness on these crystals, and, when it has given up all that is worth waiting for, the mix- ture goes back to the centrifugal ma- chines, where its adhering syrup is hurled out from this second lot of crystals. The process is repeated again, and by this time all the available sweetness has been ex- tracted, and the remaining liquor is the "blackstrap" molasses of commerce. THE PRINCIPLE OF SUGAR EXTRACTION The principle of producing sugar is embodied in the fact that water can hold only a given amount of sucrose in solu- tion. As the water is driven out of the cane juice the latter finally reaches a stage where there is not enough left to CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 29 Photograph by American Photograph Company SOWING WRAPPER LEAVES TOGETHER PREPARATORY TO HANGING THEM UP TO CURE IN A CUBAN TOBACCO BARN Before the leaves to be used as wrappers can be cured, the stems of two of them are sewed together, and they are then hung across a lath or string, saddlebag fashion, and placed in the curing barn (see text, page 31). hold all the sugar dissolved, and as evap- oration proceeds, the sugar, deprived of its water, is compelled to pass out of solu- tion into crystal form. A ton of sugar-cane yields ^\l/2 gallons of blackstrap molasses, and one gets a good impression of the immensity of the industry when, on a single day's rail journey, he meets a dozen solid trains of some forty big tank cars each, and every car full to the dome with blackstrap. Over every operation in the manufac- ture of sugar one little instrument pre- sides— the polariscope. It is the court of last resort, the final judge, in the making of sugar. Does this field produce cane rich in sugar? Is that mill extracting its proper percentage of juice out of the crushed cane? Is that juice yielding up its proper share of first-grade sugar? Does any available sugar remain unex- tracted in the blackstrap? Is this sugar pure enough to meet the importer's tests ? All these questions are put to the polariscope by the mill manager, through the chemist, and it never fails to re- turn a full and convincing answer (see page 22). What manner of mechanism is this that can thus render these dependable 30 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE verdicts, and what strange laws of nature lend it the power it possesses? To hegin with, one must remember that light is a matter of vibrations. Accord- ing to the physicists who have developed this wonderful instrument and given it the power to guarantee the sweetness that goes into our coffee cup, a ray of bright light is a matter of five hundred trillion vibrations a second. These come at every angle and hence fill up all the space they reach. If these came at the rate of only one a second, a person would have to live two million years to get as much light in his eye as now comes be- tween the ticks of a clock. THE POLARISCOPE'S TASK But by a peculiar grouping of lenses and mirrors the scientist is able to strain out all of the crisscross vibrations and use only those which move in a given direction. When these one-direction rays are passed through certain materials they thereby have their direction changed to the right or left. Sugar turns them to the left. In most polariscopes used in testing, a strong white light passes through a lens and then to a prism made up of two wedge-shaped pieces of Iceland spar cemented together with a film of Canada balsam. This prism excludes all of the crisscross rays, as a paling fence excludes the passage of all wind-blown straws ex- cept those that present themselves up- right to the openings between the palings. The remaining single-direction rays, or polarized light, pass through the solution which is to be tested and are rotated to the left. They next enter another prism like the first. A pointer attached to thumb-screw is moved as the operator adjusts the prism to correct the rotated rays as they emerge from the sugar solu- tion. When the operator looks into the eye- piece at the opposite end from the light, he sees a distinct shadow on the lens, one side being light and the other dark, this being due to the inability of the rays to get through the prism until the "paling" of glass is made perpendicular to the "straw" of light. He turns the" thumb- screw until the shadow disappears, and then looks to see where the pointer rests on the scale. Its position is the polari- scope's answer to his questions. BAGGING THE BIG CROP OF SWEETNESS After sugar has come from the centrif- ugals it goes to the bagging-room, where it is put into bags that hold 325 pounds each. These are hauled in trainloads to the docks and shipped to the United States, where the big refineries remove the impurities and transform the sugar from dirty yellow to immaculate white. A visit to a big plantation like that at Preston is an impressive experience. It is a small empire within itself, having its own railroad system, its own police department, its own hospital, its own fire department. It covers 280 square miles of territory, possesses a population of nearly ten thousand, and has nearly twelve hundred buildings. Its railroad system has 121 miles of standard-gauge railroad track, 25 standard American locomotives, and nearly 800 railroad cars. About 5,000 oxen are required to haul the cane to the field sidings of the Pres- ton railroad. Adjoining it is the Boston plantation, owned by the same company, and to- gether they constitute what is believed to be the largest compact sugar property in the world. WHERE TOBACCO RULES Sugar is supreme at the eastern end of the island, but tobacco holds the top posi- tion at the western end. Pinar del Rio tobacco soothes the nerves of men of affairs the world over. There are all kinds of tobacco-growers, from the rich "veguero," with scores of acres of the finest Vuelta Abajo wrapper, grown under cheese-cloth, to the poor thatched- hut dweller, with his little patch that produces nothing but cheap filler. Profits in growing tobacco are propor- tionate to the care expended in its culti- vation. The poor denizen of the low country may get $50 out of his acre, while the rich "vega" of the rolling up- land region may bring its owner $5,000 an acre. The finest tobacco lands in Pinar del Rio are on the south side of the range of mountains that extend through the prov- ince from east to west, midway between CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 31 Photograph by American Photograph Company A CART-LOAD OF BALED TOBACCO AS IT COMES INTO THE HAVANA WAREHOUSES FROM THE FARM WHERE IT WAS GROWN No cart is too humble to be drawn by a mule caparisoned as for a parade. Note the bells on the hames and the tassels suspended from the headstall of the bridle. The Cuban is exceptionally fond of the ornate, whether in language, architecture, or harness. the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in a well-watered, rolling country, full of natural beauty and possessed of a climate as mild and sweet as the fra- grance of the cigar whose raw material grows there. The soil is chocolate- colored, from two to ten feet deep, and gets its peculiar qualities from the vol- canoes that once were active there. In growing Vuelta Abajo tobacco, seed is taken from the first growth of strong and sturdy plants and placed in plots of virgin soil near the fields. When the seedlings reach a proper state of develop- ment they are transplanted in the fields. Fertilizer is selected by chemical analysis of both the soil and the tobacco whose flavor it is desired to reproduce. A mulch of from two to three inches of partly decomposed hay is put over the ground to keep down the weeds and to provide vegetable matter as plant food. In cutting the tobacco great care is taken that it shall have reached the proper degree of ripeness. Green tobacco pro- duces a harsh, acrid smoke ; that which is over-ripe does not work up well in making the cigars; that which the sun "has cooked to a turn" produces a mild, smooth, cool, and fragrant smoke. TWO YEARS TO CURE HIGH-GRADE LEAF In curing, the leaves are suspended on poles which are put in racks, first in the sun and then in the curing barns. In the latter they hang for several weeks, their color changing from the green of the growing plant to the brown of the finished cigar. When this stage of the curing process 32 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE is completed the leaves are put into heaps and left to "sweat" for several days. After that they are placed in bales of about 100 pounds each and shipped to the storage warehouse. There they ferment and undergo a further curing. This process continues from one to two years, according to the grade of the leaves, before they are regarded as fit to be rolled into cigars. From storage the tobacco goes to the cigar factory. Here the bales are opened up and sprayed with clear water and allowed to stand until each leaf becomes moist and pliable. After this the leaves intended for fillers are placed in hogsheads for further curing, which requires from two to six weeks, depending on the grade of the tobacco. The wrapper leaves are selected with great care. The cheese- cloth under which they were grown kept out insect enemies and protected them from heavy rains. Any leaf that has a hole through it is retired to the hum- bler rank of filler material. The cigar-makers are employed on piece-work . basis, getting an agreed sum for every hundred cigars made. Each man is given an allotment of tobacco sufficient to make a given number of finished "smokes." Hundreds of these workmen occupy a single room. PROFESSIONAL, READERS HIRED In order to get something out of life beyond the mere drudgery of rolling fine cigars for fastidious smokers, the cigar-makers club to- gether and employ a reader. This gentleman is usually a bland sort of fellow, with a musical, soothing voice. He has a little perch about five feet above the heads of the workmen, in the center of the room. In the morning he reads the daily papers. Then he passes to the comic weeklies, of which Ha- vana has a full quota ; from these he turns to the cheap fiction of the CUBA— THE SUGAR MILL OF THE ANTILLES 33 hour — fiction that makes "Dare Devil Dick" seem a "piker." After the cigars are finished they are placed in old seasoned cedar bins, where they get a little touch of the cedar aroma, while any surplus moisture in them evaporates. When ready for mar- ket they are assorted according to the color of the wrapper and packed in the boxes we see at the cigar stands. Each cigar-maker usually smokes cigars of the grade he makes, and it very often hap- pens that one of these men smokes better ci- gars than many Amer- ican millionaires. The Cuban factories in 1919 produced 157,000,000 cigars for export. Placed end to end, they would reach from the Straits of Magellan to Sitka, Alaska. The profits of the tobacco and cigar busi- ness in Cuba bring in from the outside world a great toll. It is only when consid- ered in comparison with the sugar trade that these profits ap- pear relatively small. There are many other industries which would almost certainly become sources of great wealth to Cuba were there less op- portunity of making big money in sugar- growing and tobacco-raising. Cuban sisal might rival that from Yucatan ; Cuban cattle might compete with those of Argen- tina and Australia ; Cuban fruits might claim their place in the world's markets alongside those of Florida and California. But the Cuban planter feels that of all men he can best afford to let well enough alone and stick to his two staple crops. (T) Underwood and Underwood HAVANA'S PUBLIC REPOSITORY FOR UNWANTED BABIES : CUBA This foundling asylum has a door where the mother of the un- wanted baby may go in private, place it in a cupboard in the wall, then shut the door. On the other side of the wall a Sister of Mercy opens the cupboard, and the ill-starred child finds a home where loving hearts are open to its misfortune. From whatever angle one views Cuba, it is a land filled with interest, a land that in twenty years has passed from gnaw- ing starvation to overflowing plenty. From one of the most \yretched of com- munities to one of the richest of peoples is the transformation that two decades have wrought ; and if the island shall be a beacon light, guiding the ships of state of other American nations into the har- bor of permanent peace, the altruism of the United States will be justified and external guarantees of internal peace will receive a rich vindication. THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND The Most Picturesque Portion of Canada's Maritime Provinces— A Land Rich in Historic Associations, Natural Resources, and Geographic Appeal BY CATHERINE DUNLOP MACKENZIE With Photographs by Gilbert Grosvcnor The Editor of the GEOGRAPPIIC MAGAZINE has had the good fortune to spend the better part of twenty summers in Cape Breton Island, and from his personal experience can testify that Miss Mackenzie's account of the merits of this fair island is very conservative. One can search the world in vain for lovelier or happier scenes than meet one everywhere throughout romantic Cape Breton. « >^> APE BRETON an island ? Ha ! £ Are you sure of that ? Show it X^>^ to me on the map. So it is ! My dear sir, you always bring us good news. I must go and tell the King that Cape Breton is an island!" Smollett does not tell us whether it was after he had rejoiced his sovereign with this news that the Duke of New- castle made his historic statement, "If France was master of Portsmouth, I would hang the man who should give up Cape Breton in exchange for it." But perhaps it was this glance at the map that influenced England's policy when, at the end of the Seven Years' War, France offered to waive her claim to the whole of Canada in return for the single possession of Cape Breton Island. England refused, and negotiations for peace were broken off. Although a British possession from the time of the Cabots, it was the French who as a government first valued Cape Breton as a "nursery for her seamen," and a French writer of the seventeenth century who calls it "a very beautiful island on the coast of Acadie, where there are plains and prairies, vast forests filled with oak, maple, cedar, walnut, and the finest fir trees in the world"! BASQUE SEAFARERS NAMED CAPE BRETON The island, no miles long by 87 miles wide, forms the northeastern part of the Province of Nova Scotia, with which it shares identification as Lief Ericson's "Markland." Undoubtedly her coasts were frequented by Norwegian rovers as early as the tenth century, and we even have it on the authority of the Flemish geographers that the island was discov- ered and named by Basque fishermen, who crossed the Atlantic in pursuit of whales a hundred years before the voy- ages of Columbus. Whether or not one credits them with so early a discovery, it is undoubtedly to the seafarers of the Basque provinces that Cape Breton owes her name — per- haps the oldest name in North American geography. It is from the voyages of the Cabots, however, that Cape Breton dates her his- tory. The highland to the north of the island is now generally agreed to have been the landfall of John Cabot — the first sighting of North America of which we have record. Peter Martyr's account of the voyage of the younger Cabot in 1498, when the island was claimed in the name of "Kyng Henry," shows that a landing was made on these northern shores at least a year before Columbus touched upon the mainland of the continent. Standing far out in the Atlantic, the most easterly extremity of the Dominion of Canada, Cape Breton owes much of her colorful history to her geographical position. Of all the ports on the Atlantic seaboard, hers are the nearest to the ship- ping centers of Europe and Africa by hundreds of miles. She reaches out into the ocean trade lanes, the landfall of west-bound shipping today as in the time of the Cabots, and as rich in the promise 34 THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 35 Cae St Lawrence LAWftENCE Eastern Ha.. Cheticam PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND Margaree S j*^~A ^^ J J-^*' SCOTIA Isaacs Har Drawn by A. H. Bumstead A MAP OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND Of all the ports on the Atlantic seaboard, Cape Breton's are the nearest to the shipping centers of Europe and Africa. Owing to the island's easterly projection, its ports are also nearer those of South America than others on the North Atlantic coast (note small inset map). of a great commercial future as in the heritage of an historic past. CAPD BRETON'S HISTORY is WAR HISTORY Two centuries ago her commanding position with reference to the trade of the St. Lawrence and the' West Indies made Cape Breton an issue in world poli- tics, an issue sometimes disturbing the peace of Europe and upsetting the treaties of the Powers — "the few acres of snow" for which, according to Voltaire, France and England made piratical war. The fortunes of the little island, now under the red cross of St. George, now under the golden liliesvof France, are a part of the continent's history — the greater part of it a war history. .4 THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 37 Since 1914 the utilization of that stra- tegic position tharonce made her mistress of these northern seas has given Cape Breton a new chapter of war history — a fascinating chapter, with its pageant of transport and convoy and patrol, and back of it the great war effort of her people. And now, in the new warfare of com- merce, is coming the fulfillment of that promise which her unique geography has held from the first. THE RESORT OF ADVENTURERS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY From the close of the fifteenth century until it came into French hands, after the Treaty of Utrecht, the island was the resort of the adventurers of all Europe — French and English, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese, attracted by the great wealth of the coast fisheries and by the valuable trade in furs with the native Micmacs. Before the close of Elizabeth's reign, more than 200 English vessels were em- ployed in the fisheries off Cape Breton coasts. Cape Breton ports were neutral anchorage for the shipping of the warring European powers, her peaceful bays har- bored privateer and frigate of war alike, and there is a gay note of lace ruff and jeweled sword against the stormy back- ground of the times. By the Treaty of Utrecht the island was' ceded to France, as the key to her colonies on the St. Lawrence and her rich inland territory south of the Great Lakes. England then held the whole Atlantic seaboard, from Hudson Bay to Florida, and her rival was not slow to seethe ad- vantage gained in this one exception. Strong fortifications were decided upon for Cape Breton, which was renamed "Isle Royale," and the site on the English harbor, chosen for the "Dunkirk of America," became Louisbourg, in honor of the reigning Louis XIV. THE ROMANTIC STORY OF LOUISBURG The story of Louisburg, a fortress 25 years in the building, at a cost of six millions of dollars— more than four times that sum in the value of our money— its two sieges, and its final demolition, is the best-known chapter of Cape Breton s history. . Perhaps in the annals of the New World there is no story so romantic as that of a city, ramparted and bastioned and bristling with cannon, sheltering the lives of thousands of souls, with its im- posing public buildings, its cathedral, con- vent, and hospital, its theater, and even its brewery, springing up on the shores of this far-off island in the North At- lantic— an island almost unexplored and inhabited by savages not always friendly, and for half a century remaining a chal- lenge and a menace to the neighboring colonies of a rival power. The fortress became not only the base of French naval power in America, but, with outlying posts at St. Peters, Ingo- nish, and St. Anns, the resort of priva- teers that infested the New England coast and the haven to which they con- veyed their spoils. Upon the outbreak of war between France and England, in 1744, it may be imagined that to the colonists of Massa- chusetts and New Hampshire the reduc- tion of this stronghold of His Most Christian Majesty was a highly attrac- tive project. A SIEGE THAT FORESHADOWED THE AMER- ICAN REVOLUTION The first siege and capture of Louis- burg by the little band of New England militiamen under Pepperell, with the British West India fleet under Warren, probably foreshadowed the American Revolution. Of these intrepid colonists one historian says : "Their expedition against Cape Breton was their first national enterprise and its result their first national triumph, and it presaged greater things. _ There were not wanting those who saw in the down- fall of Louisburg the independence of the American colonies. . . ^ The dor- mant idea of national separation was fan- ned into flame before the walls of Louis- burg." On the surface, however, it was purely a British exploit to "curb the haughtiness of France." There were military honors and a title for Pepperell ; and New York and Phila- delphia and Boston rang loyally with : "A glorious peace we shall have soon For we have conquered Cape Breton, With a fa. la, la." etc., S 'S B -= j fgs § §s O O a P. r-,0 bfi w « 3 < •£ <u ^ 1.1 V, g S 1.5 w 53 -5 5 Q bo THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 39 to the accompaniment of bell-ringing and bonfires and tubs of punch. The descendants of these enthusiastic citizens, the Society of Colonial Wars, have erected a granite shaft to the heroic dead of this enterprise, and it stands on the spot where Pepperell, in the presence of the assembled troops, received from the military governor the keys of this "most splendid city of La Nouvelle France." All England celebrated the victory; there were illuminations and the firing of salutes, and the captured colors of the fortress were deposited with much pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral. With the closing of this refuge of At- lantic privateers, "marine insurance on Anglo-American vessels fell at once from 30 to 12 per cent" ! GALLANTRIES IN TIME) OF WAR Subsequently the island was restored to France — as much a cause for irrita- tion to New England, and perhaps more justly so, than that which precipitated a tea-party better known. And again the fortunes of war and the final supremacy of Anglo-Saxon arms in the New World made it permanently a British possession. The giant fortress of Louisburg was demolished in favor of the newly forti- fied base at Halifax — a military neces- sity that is deplored by the visitor of today. And yet, in all its desolation, one thrills to the glory of its past. Here are the remains of the Dauphin's gate ; yon- der can be traced the bomb-proof case- ments of the King's Bastion, and on one of these grassy mounds stood the citadel, where fair ladies and gallant gentlemen of France graced the grand ball on that fateful eve of Pepperell's arrival in Gabarus Bay. Perhaps behind this very rampart the lovely Madame Drucour encouraged the defenders in the second siege by serving their guns with her own hands — the fair enemy who so won the admiration of the British admiral that he sent her a special message complimenting her upon her 'bravery. It is a pretty story and we are glad that Madame accepted the Admiral's compliments and the West Indian pineapples which accompanied them, and graciously returned him a basket of French wines for his wounded. THE ADVENT OF SCOTTISH SETTLERS For some years after the peace con- cluding the Seven Years' War, which confirmed England's ownership of Cape Breton, the policy of her government in reserving the island for naval purposes retarded its colonization. Not until 1784, when the island became tempo- rarily a separate colony, with its own governor, were grants of land to settlers permitted. Thus Cape Breton received fewer of the United Empire Loyalists, who main- tained their allegiance to the British Crown at the expense of their lands and homes in the thirteen American col- onies, than did the adjacent provinces, and had room for a greater number of the hardy Scottish settlers who came in the late years of the eighteenth and the opening of the nineteenth century. Many of these came out to join rela- tives and friends among the Highland soldiers who had fought under Wolfe at the second siege of Louisburg and who had remained in the country upon the disbanding of their regiments, while others came in the stream of emigration which had its source in the breaking up of the clan system and the agrarian troubles in the Scottish Highlands after the suppression of "the '45" and the dis- aster of Culloden Moor. In this way the island became "as Gaelic as the most Gaelic part of Scot- land." Though there are considerable French Acadian settlements, a more or less cosmopolitan population in the vicin- ity of the mining districts, and many descendants of the fine old United Em- pire Loyalist stock, the F. F. V.'s of the provinces, Cape Breton is still predomi- nantly Highland Scottish in its popula- tion. Here can be heard the old Celtic tongue that hurled defiance at Caesar from the shores of Britain two thousand years ago — a tongue that has sounded the slogan of the Highland clans on every battlefield of the Empire; "a THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE speech that fits the Highlander's mouth to a nicety, that becomes him like his kilt and bonnet ; a speech that readily sounds a note of war and just as readily suits itself to devotional purposes ; it is adapted to a fine, long grace before meat or to a lusty war-cry that startles the very eagles in their eyries." BRED TO HARDSHIPS AND DANGERS In the north and west of the island in particular these hardy mountaineers and islesmen found much to remind them of their native hills and glens and sea-girt coasts. Bred to the hardships and dan- gers of warfare through all their history, they were peculiarly fitted to endure the privations of pioneer life in this north- ern wilderness. They were pitifully un- skilled in the use of the axe and the plow and unprepared for the cold of winter, yet they endured where almost any other people would have perished. In their descendants the same qualities of fearlessness and unswerving purpose are leaving their impress upon the citi- zenship of the American States and the western provinces, whither the youth of Cape Breton are flocking yearly. This seeking of wider opportunities by her most enterprising sons and daugh- ters is a serious loss to Cape Breton and a problem which it is hoped a greater commercial development of the island will solve. They can be found occupying positions of trust in profession and trade alike : whether in lumber or mining camp, be- fore the mast or on the bridge, on both seaboards and the Great Lakes, in the university, in law or medicine, or in the Church — they are Cape Bretoners all, coheirs of that "dash of poetry, a touch of genius that belongs of the same fine quality, to no other people." THE CAPE BRETONER AS A SOLDIER In speaking of the appearance of the Canadian troops in the late war, Lord Northcliffe said : "Many are of a great stature, especially the Scotsmen from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and Cape Breton — some of the descendants of the disbanded Highland regiments of long ago." Another writer, more enthusiastic than accurate, calls them "a race of men phys- ically the superior of any other on the face of this continent." "They are chiefly of Highland Scottish descent, with a sprinkling of French Canadians and, as a matter of course, nearly all Roman Catholics in their religious be- lief." His observations of the Highlanders was apparently confined to the stalwart descendants of the Barra Islemen, de- vout sons of the Church. Had he pene- trated far, in Victoria County for in- stance, he would have breathed the at- mosphere of Calvin's five points, where the open-air sacraments of the Scottish Covenanters are still held, with services in English and Gaelic. There are still old people who speak no other tongue than their native Gaelic and many who are more at home in it than in the speech of the Sassenach. Hundreds of Cape Bretoners fought in the American Civil War. There are vet- erans still living on remote Cape Breton farms who can tell of walking all the way to Maine to enlist. Her sons followed the Empire's call on South African kopje and veldt ; and since 1914, out of a popu- lation of approximately 122,000 men women, and children, Cape Breton con- tributed 13,000 volunteers to the Cana- dian forces. Large as the proportion is, it repre- sents, after all, only a fraction of the island's contribution, for the honor roll of the Great War contains the names of hundreds of her sons who enlisted in other provinces and the United States. And there were no better soldiers on any front. One Cape Breton Highlander, a bronzed, kilted giant who might have sped the fiery cross in "the '15" or "the '45," told of an informal presentation to an officer of the Allied High Command : "Ah !" said he, "you are from Canada ? I don't know much about Canada, except that there is a place there called Cape Breton, and the men are born fighters." From the second battle of Ypres. where a Cape Breton company first won distinction in this war, to the undying glory that was theirs at Vimy Ridge and THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 41 A GROUP OF ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL'S TWIN-BEARING SHEEP : CAPE) BRETON DR. BELL AND HIS TALENTED WIFE, MABEL GARDINER BELL, DISCUSSING SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTS AT BADDECK 42 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Passchendaele, and the breaking of the Queant-Drocourt line, these men have indeed "stood a wall of fire around their much-loved isle/' And when the victorious Canadians marched into Mons in the dawn of that historic November morning, it was the pipers of that most Cape Breton of all units, the 85th Nova Scotia Highlanders, that skirled on ahead to "Bonny Blue Bonnets Are Over the Border." But Cape Breton's army was not ex- clusively Gaelic in its personnel. There are English and Irish and Welsh and Lowland Scottish names — men from the mining districts* and French Acadians from the settlements of the West Coast and Richmond County, where the French of Louis XIV is still spoken. These were some of the men who took back to France the folk-songs brought over the seas by their ancestors two and three centuries ago. Sometimes, as they passed singing through the French villages, old inhabit- ants came out to hear almost forgotten "chansons" of their youth on the lips of these kinsmen from overseas. There were Cape Breton medical offi- cers and nursing sisters on every front, whether serving with Canadian, or Im- perial, or American units. And back of this record of active service stood the people of the island. It is not too much to say that Canada's output of munitions was dependent upon Cape Breton steel and Cape Breton coal which means Cape Breton workmen. In the little city of Sydney and the county of which it is the shire-town, the sum of $12.000,000 was subscribed in one year for war needs; and this from a popula- tion of less than 100,000, none of them citizens of great wealth. And as great as these contributions, which can be reckoned in dollars, were the untiring efforts of Cape Breton women to provide for every need of the men overseas. In town and village and in the remotest country districts alike there were mothers, and wives and * It is said that the mining town of New VVaterford sent more men overseas in propor- tion to its population than any other town in the British Empire. daughters, and sisters of Cape Breton soldiers spinning and knitting for their comfort — and waiting, too often in vain, for their return. CAPE: BRETON'S WEALTH IN COAL Commercially, Cape Breton is best known for the wealth of her enormous coal deposits and for her growing steel industry. The first regular' mining of Cape Breton coal appears to have been for the supply of the fortress of Louis- burg, though there is earlier mention of its use, and in a report to the British Admiralty in 1711 Admiral Walker says: ''The island has always in time of peace been used in common, both by the English and the French, for loading coals, which are extraordinarily good here, and taken out of the cliffs with iron bars only and no other labour." As fuel, it continues to be "extraor- dinarily good," and in 1918 the island'vs production was 4,585,110 net tons. There are three distinct coal fields,— the Sydney, the Inverness, and the Rich- mond— the importance of the first over- shadowing the others, though in them- selves of considerable value. The Syd- ney field, with its estimated deposit of one thousand million tons £e.xdusive of seams less than four feet thi<;k), is prob- ably the most valuable in the Dominion. The land area of this field forms merely the southern extremity of a vast deposit extending far out under the At- lantic— submarine areas that are already being worked two miles from shore. The value of these coal areas is en- hanced twofold by the shipping advan- tages of Sydney and Louisburg harbors, and it is significant that these ports are nearer not only to European and African markets, but, by reason of the island's easterly projection, nearer to those of South America than any other ports on the North Atlantic seaboard (see map, page 35)-. The shipping of Louisburg and Syd- ney is within shorter sailing distance of Rio de Janeiro than that of New Orleans. THE ONLY "COAL AT TIDE-WATER" Cape Breton coal is of the bituminous variety, especially useful in the manufac- THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND TOWKR ON THE SUMMIT OF BKINN BHREAGH This outlook tower, unique in design and construction, was recently erected by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, at his summer home in Baddeck, Cape Breton. The tower reaches a height of nearly eighty feet, and yet neither scaffolding nor derricks were employed in building it. It is made of the tetrahedral cells invented by Dr. Bell. This considerable struc- ture weighs less than five tons, and yet can carry a great weight. It is remarkable, not only for its strength and lightness, as well as cheapness, but also for the fact that it was put together in about ten days by several unskilled laborers, and that every part of the work was done on the ground. No one was obliged to leave the ground until the tower stood erect and completed. 44 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DR. BELL'S MAN-LIFTING KITE FLYING OVER BRAS D'OR LAKE (SEE PAGE 49) This is the giant Cygnet No. i, in which Lieutenant Thomas E. Self ridge, U. S. Army, made an ascent 168 feet above the waters of the Bras d'Or Lake thirteen years ago. THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 45 HAUUNG DOWN ONE OF DR. BEU/S LARGER KITES I CAPE BRETON It is no easy matter to bring down one of these sturdy flyers when the wind is blowing hard. 46 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ture of gas, with all the consequent by- product possibilities. In the good old days when coal could be had for a shilling or so a ton, the women- folk of the miners at one of the Sydney workings used to provide hot water for the weekly wash by the simple practice of digging a hole ten or twelve inches deep at the water's edge, filling it with pebbles and setting a candle to it. By this means they had plenty of boiling water, and the supply continued for weeks or months unless the fire was extinguished. This incident has been quoted in a government report to illustrate the high percentage of gas. Xo estimate is given of the cost of the hot water at present prices of coal, but it is surely proof of Sydney's claim to coal "at tide-water" — the only coal at tide-water on the Atlantic seaboard. With this unlimited supply of fuel suitable for coke, limestone in abun- dance, and iron ore near at hand, Cape Breton has the three requisite raw mate- rials for that "cheapest ton of steel" which Andrew Carnegie has said assured a nation supremacy. But, above all. Cape Breton's commer- cial advantage lies in her facilities for water transport. All other important iron-producing districts of the continent are far inland. Cape Breton's maritime position relieves her industry of the bur- den of railway freight hauls for raw material and gives her a corresponding advantage over inland competitors in de- livery of the finished product to foreign markets. In iqi8 the island produced 512,377 net tons of steel ingots and 415,808 net tons of pig-iron. Figures of the actual production of war material by the Syd- ney industries are not yet available, but they may be estimated from the fact that an army of 16,000 men was employed in the steel plant and collieries through more than four years of war, working night and day, the products ranging from steel rails, shell blanks, and barbed wire to chemicals for the manufacture of high explosives. During the war 705,000 gal- lons of toluene were manufactured in Cape Breton. Due to their part in the making of steel, the island's rich deposits of lime- stone and dolomite are, next to coal, the most extensively developed of her min- eral resources. The production of lime- stone alone, for 1918, was considerably more than 400,000 tons. The largest areas are operated by the corporations controlling the Sydney industries and all of them are near the invaluable water transport which the Bras d'Or Lakes afford. The city of Sydney shares with the towns of North Sydney and Sydney Mines, across the harbor, one of the finest ports in North America. It was founded as the capital of the island when Cape Breton was a separate province, and was a garrison town up to the time of the Crimean War. Though its founding completed Louis- burg's ruin, it never in any way ap- proached the military importance of that fortress. But it has a military heritage of some well-laid streets, and its park is outside the town because, so the story goes, one of the military governors lost the title to the original site at a poker game. Sydney's coal and steel industries are rapidly making it a great commercial center, and it has now a five-million-dol- lar ship-plate rolling mill, which presages steel shipbuilding on its own waterfront with its own steel. NORSEMEN CAME TO THE ISLAND FOR TIMBER In earlier times the whole island was well wooded with hemlock, oak, ash, birch, elm, maple, beech, and pine, as well as the spruce and fir now predomi- nant. The Norsemen came here for tim- ber, and within a generation the craft of the Clyde shipbuilders loading lumber were familiar in Bras d'Or waters. Forest fires have depleted the finest areas, and the export has largely fallen off, but in 1918 the Cape Breton col- lieries used nearly 12,000,000 lineal feet of pit timber, most of it produced on the island. The wood-pulp industry is a source of large revenue and one in which much American capital has been invested. THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 47 HD-4 AT REST: CAPE BRETON (SEE ALSO PAGES 48 AND 49) Next in importance to Cape Breton's mineral wealth are her fisheries. The cod, the ancestor of North American ex- ports, has formed the principal catch of these waters since Sebastian Cabot re- ported them in such numbers as to im- pede the navigation of his ships, and Charlevoix asserted the fishery of more value to France than the mines of Peru and Mexico. Cape Breton fishermen took a toll of nearly $4,000,000 from the coast waters of the island in 1918. The salmon and trout fishing of the streams is well known the continent over and the tuna fishing at St. Anns Bay at- tracts sportsmen yearly (see page 51). THREE GREAT NAMES ASSOCIATED WITH CAPE BRETON It is singular that Cape Breton should be associated with the work of the three men who have done most to make neigh- bors of the nations — Morse, Bell, and Marconi. It was on Cape Breton shores, at Cape North, that the first successful Atlantic cable was landed in 1867; and for years through the lonely North country of the island, ran the land line of the cable com- pany— the slender link between conti- nents that united two civilizations. One of the biggest problems of the company's superintendent was to prevent the interruption of world news by the marksmanship of young Cape Breton, who, heedless of tidings of the rise and fall of empires, found the wire a novel target. "BEINN BHREAGH" A CENTER OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT The laboratories of Alexander Graham Bell at his estate, "Beinn Bhreagh" (Beautiful Mountain), near Baddeck, have been for nearly thirty-five years the center of the great scientist's work of re- search and experiment in subjects rang- ing all the way from aerial locomotion to the breeding of a multi-nippled, twin- bearing stock of sheep. Dr. Bell's work is of special interest to the members of the National Geographic Society, of which he was the second president and a member of its Board of Trustees since its founding. Preserved in the laboratory museum is one of the first commercial graphophones (a phonograph as well, for it both re- corded sound and reproduced it), which Graham Bell used here in his experiments in multiplying phonograph records by means of printing from molds of plaster and agate cement. A collection of these molds is another exhibit. - These Cape Breton experiments with the graphophone followed Dr. Bell's work with his associates of the Volta Labora- THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 49 HAUUNG THE HD~4 INTO HER HOUSE The illustration shows very clearly the two sets of hydrofoils (resembling ladders), on which the boat rises from the water as she gathers speed. The faster she goes the higher she rises from the water, until she is supported solely by the lowest blades, as is very graph- ically shown on page 48. tory, which resulted in the flat disk rec- ord, with its "sound-reproducing, later- ally undulating groove in a wax-like tablet" that is universally used today. The Beinn Bhreagh Laboratory did not share in this work; it was not in ex- istence then; so the flat disk "phono- graphs," as Dr. Bell called those first records, are in the National Museum at Washington, instead of in the little one at Beinn Bhreagh. But there is a fascinating collection of apparatus similar to that used in the de- velopment of the photophone ; there are models of the giant man-carrying kites of tetrahedral-cell construction which preceded Graham Bell's work in the heavier- than-air flying machine, and a whole series of models of aerial pro- pellers tested out here in the infancy of the modern flyiner-machine. From his bovhood Graham Bell had believed in mechanical flight, and he was working on kite structures when Samuel Pierpont Langley visited him in Cape Breton in 1804. It was Graham Bell who encouraged Langley's work in aerodromics at a time when even the radical minds in the scientific world looked askance at the man who would fly. And he was the sole witness, other than Langley's workmen, of that historic flight at Quantico, Va., in May, 1896, of which Dr. Bell has said : "The sight of Langley's steam aero- drome circling in the sky convinced me that the age of the flying-machine was at hand." CAPE BRETON'S CONTRIBUTION TOWARD THE MASTERY OF THE AIR For the next ten years Graham Bell devoted himself to the perfection of his tetrahedral kites. On December 6, 1907, the giant Cygnet No. I made an ascent of 1 68 feet above the waters of the Bras 50 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE d'Or Lake, carrying Lieut. Thomas E. Selfridge, of the U. S. Army. This was the first machine of the Aerial Experiment Association formed by Dr. Bell in 1907 with summer headquarters in Cape Breton, the object being "to get into the air." Associated with him were Lieut. Thomas E. Selfridge, who was detailed by the U. S. Army to assist the experiments ; two young Canadian engi- neers, F. W. Baldwin and J. A. D. Mc- Curdy, and Glenn H. Curtiss, who was the motor expert of the association. They got into the air. It was with an A. E. A. machine, the "Red Wing," that F. W. Baldwin made the first public flight in America over the ice at Lake Keuka, N. Y., in 1908 — a flight of 318 feet, 1 1 inches ; twenty feet in the air ! Then the "White Wing" flew a thousand feet or so, and in the third machine, "The June Bug," Glenn Curtiss won the Scientific American trophy for flying the first measured kilometer under test con- ditions. And finally came the "Silver Dart," which Cape Breton claims as par- ticularly hers, because in it, on February 23, 1909, J. A. D. McCurdy, a Cape Bre- toner born, over the ice of Baddeck Bay, made the first flight in the British Em- pire. Its aim accomplished, the Aerial Ex- periment Association automatically dis- solved in March, .1909. This work of eighteen months, financed entirely by Mrs. Bell, resulted in the development of features which are fundamental in all modern heavier-than-air flying-machines ; and it was the apprenticeship of men who were to go far in the art. Selfridge unfortunately met his death in an accident to one of the Wright ma- chines, at Fort Myer, in 1908 — the first victim of modern aviation. Baldwin and McCurdy continued to fly, and with their Baddeck-built machines were the pioneers of Canadian flight. A BADDECK- MADE BOAT WHICH HAS A SPEED OF 70 MILES AN HOUR For the last ten years Graham Bell and F. W. Baldwin have been associated in the development of high-speed boats of the submerged hydroplane type — hydro- dromes they call them, and abbreviate the term to "HD." The "HD-4," which makes 70 miles an hour is the latest con- tribution to the series. It embodies the best features developed in their ten years of joint experiment, and it is the fastest boat in the world (see pages 47-49). During the war the Beinn Bhreagh laboratories, where the HD's have been built, were converted into a boat-building establishment, and did useful work in building small craft for the Canadian and British governments. It was the first boat-building plant in Canada to employ women workers. THE FIRST STATION FOR TRANSATLANTIC WIRELESS As Cape Breton received the first direct cable message from Europe to America, so thirty-five years later the first public wireless message between the hemispheres was sent from the Table Head station near Glace Bay. The message was from the Governor-General of Canada to Ed- ward VII. In permitting this purely British inter- change for the historic message, Signer Marconi evidenced his appreciation of Canada's assistance in his experimental work, after the opposition of the cable people compelled him to abandon his work in Newfoundland. The site for this first station in the Americas was given by the Dominion Coal Co., and the expense of erecting the first four towers was largely covered by an appropriation of the Canadian Gov- ernment. THE FINEST SCENERY IN THE MARITIME PROVINCES The finest scenery in the Maritime provinces is to be found in northern Cape Breton and through the lovely Bras d'Or Lake region of the interior. Most striking of the island's physical features is this inland sea, known in its two sections as the Great and Little Bras d'Or lakes. Widening out from its two Atlantic entrances, it extends in its 450 square miles of area through the heart of the island — nearly a thousand miles of interior coast-line bordering all four counties and forming in enchanting suc- cession wide harbors, island-dotted bays, and deep fjord-like channels. A ship canal at historic St. Peters, across the old Indian portage of Nicholas Deny's THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETOX ISLAND 51 THE WORLD'S RECORD TUNA, WEIGHING 680 POUNDS, TAKEN WITH THE ROD AND LINE SHOWN IN THE PICTURE, AFTER MANY HOURS OF PLAY, BY J. K. L. ROSS AT ST. ANNS BAY, CAPE BRETON This giant tuna, locally known as the horse mackerel, ranges in weight from 500 to 1,200 pounds. Its capture affords most exciting experiences to those fond of the sport. On one occasion Mr. Ross played cne of these tuna 19 hours. After dragging him with his row-boat some 20 miles down the coast, the fish broke the line and escaped. Photograph from Mr. Ross. 52 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE BAY OF ST. ANNS, CAPE BRETON, THE PORT OF EMBARKATION FOR THAT STRANGE HEGIRA TO NEW ZEALAND (SEE PAGE 53) time, connects the lake waters with the Strait of Canso. "I have wanted to see the Bras d'Or Lakes,'' said a summer visitor recently, "since my first trip through the Canadian Rockies. We had with us a well-known guide, who listened patiently to our raptures until one of the young girls of the party turned to him and cried en- thusiastically, 'How inspiring it must be to live always in the midst of this mag- nificent scenery !' 'Scenery !' he said, almost contemptuously. 'If you want to see scenery, Miss, go down to the Bras d'Or* Lakes, in Cape Breton, where I was born ; that's where you'll see scen- ery!'" This inland waterway was of great strategic value to the French, as at a later * Though the name "Bras d'Or" (literally arm of gold) is usually considered a descriptive term original with the French, it is plain from the first charts of the island that the present spell- ing is simply the French rendering of the earlier name, "Labrador." It is an interesting conjecture whether that romantic Portuguese navigator who named "Terra Labrador" to the north may have first found his way into this magnificent waterway and given it the name it still bears. period it was a valuable means of trans- portation— indeed, the only means of transportation at first — to the Highland Scottish settlers. Today it affords easy access to the markets of the Sydneys for the farmers of the interior, no less than a natural playground for the people of the industrial centers. ONE OF THE WORLD'S FINEST YACHTING COURSES Here is one of the finest yachting courses in the world, with deep-sea cruis- ing within easy reach of sheltered har- bors, deep-water fishing, and sea-bathing With only a few inches of tide, there are no untidy beaches or mud flats and no "head current when homeward bound/' It was Charles Dudley Warner who said : "The Bras d'Or is the most beauti- ful salt-water lake I have ever seen, and more beautiful than we had imagined a body of salt water could be. Certainly, as we glided out upon the summer waters and began to get the graceful outlines of the widening shores, it seemed as if we had taken passage to the Fortunate Isles. The most electric American, heir of all THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND 53 the nervous diseases of all the ages, could not but find peace in this scene of tran- quil beauty, and sail on into a great and deepening contentment." The Bras d'Or lakes are all this and more. Words seem poor things, applied to the sparkle of blue waters under mid- summer sun, the flash of seagulls' wings in purple shallows, or to headlands some- times blue in the distance, sometimes brilliant with October coloring and hazy under the heat of Indian summer, or snow-capped and vivid against dazzling winter skies. A CHARM PECULIARLY ITS OWN Those who are fond of seeing in every- thing a likeness to something else com- pare Cape Breton scenery variously to the Highlands of Scotland or to Killar- ney; but the world-traveled Americans who have made it their summer home since its rediscovery by Warner find that, as lovely as all these, it has a charm pe- culiarly its own. Besides these great stretches of inland sea, there are several beautiful fresh- water lakes — the largest, Lake Ainslie, with a length of twelve miles ; Loch Lo- mond, as picturesque as its name, and the Lakes-o-Law, headwaters of the Mar- garee River, of salmon-fishing fame. For loveliness these lake districts rival the Bras d'Or. There are graceful wooded hills, rich upland pastures, and stretches of fertile intervale between. Lake Ainslie is in the heart of a rich farming country that extends from the Baddeck and Middle rivers through the beautiful valley of the Margaree, and re- minds one of how much underrated are the agricultural possibilities of Cape Bre- ton. THE ISLAND'S DIVERSIFIED PHYSICAL FEATURES No country in the world is better adapted for mixed farming or has greater rapidity of growth, once vegetation is started. Oddly enough, the lateness of the spring gives Cape Breton fruit-grow- ers an advantage over those of the famous Annapolis Vallev of the neighboring peninsula, as the blossom buds do not de- velop too early and the proximity to the lakes is a safeguard from early autumn frosts. If one had to use just a single word to describe Cape Breton, it would have to be "diversified." There is a diversity of people, of products, of industries, but especially of physical features. Beyond the fertile Margaree Valley, stretching away i,iocr square miles to the north, is a great elevated table-land, in some places 1,200 feet above sea-level and only broken by the ranges of mountains lining the coasts. This plateau is covered with stunted spruce, moss, and rock, and is a natural game reserve that until recent years af- forded the finest of moose and deer and caribou hunting. There are still caribou and deer and brown bears, and good partridge shoot- ing in the hills, but the moose have been exterminated and the "barrens" are most frequented for the quantities of luscious blueberries in season. The berries are of great size and fine flavor and have been canned successfully for the market. There are tracts of peat-bogs here that may account for the complaint of the traveler that "the higher you go in Cape Breton the wetter it gets." The north of the island can be reached by steamer from the Sydneys or over- land. A STRANGE HECIRA TO NEW ZEALAND Overland from Baddeck, which un- questionably has the most beautiful sur- roundings of any spot on the island, the historic St. Anns Bay district is the first stage of the journey. Here the fathers of the Society of Jesus labored among the "sauvages" in the days before Louis- burg, and here are the remains of the later French fortifications, built when Louis XIV and his ministers debated whether this or Louisburg harbor should be their naval base in the Americas. The little cove can be seen where the bark Margaret was launched, the first of the six vessels built for that strange hegira to New Zealand of the Rev. Nor- man Macleod and more than eight hun- dred of his flock. St. Anns folk still tell of the power of this "prophet, priest, and king," who dis- claimed any earthly authority higher than his own, dealt with the Old Adam 54 THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND of a primitive community solely by the virtue of an extraordinary personality, and when more than seventy years of age was the moving spirit in almost whole- sale emigration of the Highland settlers to the other side of the world. He discountenanced the small vanities of the womenfolk and once forbade the wearing of muslin rufflings, then the vogue for Sunday headgear. An official of the kirk was sent from door to door to collect the irons used for fluting the -accessory, and these vexations of the pioneer spirit were consigned to the depths of St. Anns Bay. THE HOME: OF A FAMOUS GIANT Englishtown was the home of Angus McAskill, the Cape Breton giant, who toured the globe under the same manage- ment as Tom Thumb. That McAskill was seven feet nine inches in height, with the girth of two men, and lifted hundred-pound weights with two fingers, still interests the tour- ist, who can see the giant's grave and the clothes that he wore, and may, if he wishes, try on his boots. But by his Cape Breton neighbors Angus McAskill is also remembered as a personality, and anecdotes of his kindliness and personal charm are as current as are those of his herculean size and strength. Beyond St. Anns and Englishtown, with their hills and cliffs and encircling "blue waters, the drive along the North Shore is surpassingly lovely. Landward there are ever the hills, near and remote, the green meadows of farmlands "abounding in the richest of milk and Celtic respectability and gravity and hos- pitality" ; seaward the Atlantic, and in the distance, sheer out of the ocean, towers "Smoky." Once seen, the view looking south- ward from Smoky is never forgotten. Headland after headland in outline reaching out to the eastward, plaster cliffs dazzling white against the distant tlue, and, 1,200 feet below, the long roll of the Atlantic. Across Smoky is the village of South Ingonish, with magnificent sand beach and surf bathing, and beyond the road leads over hill and barren to Neils Har- TWO MEN WEARING THE WAISTCOAT OF CAPE BRETON'S FAMOUS GIANT, MC- ASKIW,: HIS BOOT IS SHOWN AT THE RIGHT bor, and farther still to Dingvvall and Cape North (see pages 57-58). These coast villages are cosy fishing communities, settled in great part by Newfoundland fishermen, with some families of Irish extraction and a sprink- ling of Scots. Traces of the early Por- tuguese occupation -have been found along these coasts. Ingonish, originally Ni^aniche, was one of Louisburg's outlying posts. In 1729 it had a considerable population and an imposing church. About 70 years ago the bell, weighing more than 200 pounds, was found buried in the 56 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A TROUT POOL NEAR CHETICAMP : CAPE BRETON CODFISH DRYING IN CAPE BRETON ISLAND THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETOX ISLAND 57 THE: CALM BEAUTY OF ASPY BAY: CAPE} BRETON CAPE BRETON'S FARTHEST NORTH : CAPE NORTH Around this bold Cape Breton headland, which is so lovely in fair weather, sweep tides and currents almost as changing as the winds, making this coast one of the most dangerous shore-lines in the North Atlantic. Yet each little cove contains its fishing settlements whence hardy men venture out every month of the year. 58 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sand of the beach. It bore the inscription: 'Tour la paroisse de Niganiche j'ai ete nominee par Jean Dec- arette et par Francois Urail, parrain et marraine, Le Fosse Huet de St. Malo m'a faite 1'an 1729." On the west coast, north from Clieticamp to Bay St. Lawrence, the scenery is fully as picturesque as that of the eastern side, but un- til very recently has been less accessible to the tourist. There are ghost stories and tales of witchcraft and second-sight reminiscent of the Outer Hebrides for every rural locality. The Old Nick is a very real per- sonage indeed and frequents lonely roads in various guises, according to the habits of the narrator and the hour of the morning. A LAND OF NICKNAMES Cape Breton is noted for its nicknames. Not only are they numerous, but in the Highland communities especially there is an apt- ness about them that makes them stick — sometimes for generations. More striking, however, than the existence of the purely personal sort of nickname that, after all, is universal, is the preva- lence in present-day Cape Breton of the typical High- land by-names and patro- nymics that centuries ago gave rise to the Sept names of the great Scottish clans. The custom of identifying families by their pedigrees is as old as Celtic tradition. So, in Cape Breton today, where there are whole com- munities of Macneils, or Macraes, or Macleans (in one polling district of 227 names there are 103 Mac- neils and only eighteen THE CHARM OF CAPE BRETON ISLAND >^ ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AND THREE OF HIS GRANDCHILDREN IN CAPE BRETON ISLAND other names among the remaining 124 of Mackinnons, for instance, sharing in \,1 • . .4 • 1 . • r ,\ /"« 1 • j T . . _ f I^V 1 J A „ voters), there exist the same identifying names current in the Scottish Highlands from the time of Malcolm III. the Christian names of Donald, Angus, and Sandy, etc., Sandy's children are likely to be identified as Donald Sandy or Where there are a half dozen families Angus Sandy, or Sandy Sandy; Angus's 60 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE children will be distinguished as Donald Angus and Sandy Angus, etc. The grandchildren become Angus Donald- Sandy or Sandy Donald-Sandy, and so on, to unbelievable lengths. If, as often happens, there are more persons of one name than can be so dis- tinguished, one family may be known as Sandy Ruadh (Red), or Sandy Ban (White), or Big Angus, or Little Angus, or Angus the Cobbler, and the adjective may persist to the third or fourth gen- eration. A generation ago these by-names fol- lowing the surnames could be found on the electoral voting lists in Cape Breton, and country merchants frequently re- sorted to them to identify the Duncans and Donalds, Normans and Neils on their ledgers. Even today the bracketed "John's son" or "Rory's widow," which avoids the confusing of the persons with others of the same name, are very common. In the same way Angus Matheson, carpenter, is distinguished from another Angus Matheson, mason, or from a third who is a wheelwright ; and occasionally a genuine family by-name appears like Ranald Macdonald (Bain) or Ranald Macdonald (King), the respective Ran- alds being better known as Ranald Bain or Ranald King than by their mutual surname. In the Cape Breton "nickname," pure and simple, there is the same personal touch that goes with a nickname any- where— not often complimentary, but very much to the point. Besides "Johnny the Widow" or "Mary-Ann Captain Dan Sandy," which are strictly patronymics, there may be "Duncan the Bear," origi- nating with some personal exploit of Duncan's, or "Willie Holy/' whose father was Holy Willie, his piety leaving as much to be desired as the sobriety of Sober Neil, who took his whisky neat and often, like a good Cape Bretoner. J. A. H. Cameron, in his "Colonel from Wyoming," illustrates this typically Cape Breton form of nickname with the story of Angus the Ox. The hero of the tale was Axe-handle Angus, "who used to do some coopering in the shape of making axe-handles for some of the Syd- ney merchants. He stole an ox once, long, long ago, and sold it to Archie the Brewer for ten gallons of home-made whisky; and when he came home, after spending three months in jail, instead of calling him Axe-handle Angus, they called him Angus the Ox; they called his brother Donald the Ox and his sister Nancy the Ox." The family was ever after known as "The Oxen," and the poor people were so sensitive about it that they gave up raising oxen, even for their own farm- work. CHANGING THE ISLAND'S CUMATE) A REMOTE PROSPECT The summer weather has no extreme heat, while the island's insular position and proximity to the Gulf Stream give it a winter climate less severe than many more southerly parts of the mainland. The island is in the latitude of south- ern France, and if the blocking of the Straits of Belle Isle is accomplished, di- verting the cold Labrador currents that now retard the spring, Cape Breton may share .with the New England coast in orange and olive growing, and perhaps sunny vineyards will replace the storm- tossed forests on Smoky's rugged face. The prospect is sufficiently remote, however, to leave undisturbed for the present those of us who prefer Smoky as it is, and the autumn tints of maple and beech and birch, which give gorgeousness to Cape Breton Octobers, to the sunniest vineyards. Whether it is due entirely to the rugged stock from which they come or (in part) to some virtue of the climate, these Cape Breton descendants of the Scots are re- markably long-lived. Indeed, it would seem that Ponce de Leon missed his ob- jective only by taking too southerly a course, and that in this bracing island air, rather than in softer climes, is the magic elixir of eternal youth. As "Sam Slick" has summarized it : "I don't know what more you'd ask. In- dented everywhere with harbors, sur- rounded with fisheries, the key of the St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, and the West Indies ; prime land above, one vast mineral bed beneath, and a climate over all temperate, pleasant, and healthy ; if that ain't enough for one place, it's a pity ; that's all !" ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER BY FREDERICK SIMPICH FORMERLY AMERICAN CONSUL AT NOGALES, MEXICO, AUTHOR OF "WHERE ADAM AND EVE LIVED," "MYSTIC XED.TEF, THE SHIA MECCA," "THE RISE OF THE NEW ARAB NATION," ETC. THE Mexican border! What a frequent phrase! How it hints at turmoil and intrigue, at wild night rides by cavalry patrols, at gun- runners and smugglers ! How sugges- tive it is, too, of brown- faced, snappy- eyed girls in red skirts and mantillas, peddling tamales and dulccs; of Mexican women washing clothes, babies, and dishes in irrigation ditches ; of burros, hens, and pigs foraging about adobe doorways ! For years our papers have run news stories under border town date-lines, telling of turbulence and strife, of adven- ture, romance, and intrigue. Hardly a week passes but a front-page story "breaks" somewhere on the Mexican border. No region in all North America is more frequently mentioned or more widely misunderstood, perhaps, as re- gards places,* routes, distances, and the habits and customs of its people. Now a boundary, they used to tell us at school, is an imaginary line between two countries. But in various jails hard by this long line of muddy water and stone obelisks that marks where the U. S. A. quits and Mexico begins, there are always a few tardy fugitives who deny that this line is "imaginary." It unites us with Mexico, or separates us from it, they say, depending on the humor of border sheriffs at particular moments. At Nogales they tell of a fugitive from American justice, hard pressed by the Yankee police, who fled and fell sprawl- ing fairly across this line — his head and shoulders in Mexico, the rest of his body in Arizona. Frantically his waiting Mexican friends grabbed him by hair *A common cause of geographic confusion is the large number of towns in our Southwest which bear Spanish names, and the frequent recurrence of these identical town names in Mexico. Names like Santa Cruz, Del Rio, Casa Grande, etc., occur on bot'.i sides of^the line. "Alamos" are found by the dozen; like- wise "San Juans." and hands, seeking to drag him over to safety. But a pursuing constable dropped heavily on the fugitive's feet, with a pistol against the American part of his anat- omy, and bawled such ominous threats that the runaway squirmed hastily home again. More than one border bad man "bit the dust" because he didn't know just where this line was or didn't reach it in time. In other ways the social cleavage of this border is sharp and startling. It cuts us off abruptly from another people, showing an odd, interesting "cross-sec- tion" of diverse civilizations, proving again what the Roman said about races of men differing in manners and habits, in standards and traditions. Nor are all the people along this line either Yankees or Mexicans. Thousands of Chinese are settled here, on the Mex- ican side ; and Turks and Japanese, and twenty Indian tribes speaking twenty of the babel of tongues heard in Mexico. IT'S A LONG, CROOKED LI NIC Thousands of settlers migrate to this border-land each year, losing themselves in the vast, hazy-blue stretches of its open country; but they are Americans all, mostly from the Middle West and the South. The hordes of Finns, Slavs, and Neapolitans that pour into our At- lantic ports never get this far; they stop in the manufacturing centers of the East. In Texas and California, of course, na- tive-born generations are found ; in the newer States of Arizona and New Mex- ico most of the residents (barring chil- dren) have come from other States. Adventurous, colorful, and full of con- trasts as it is, the i,8oo-mile trip along this crooked, historic line is rough and difficult and has been made by few people. Some of the wildest and least known regions of our country are piled up against this border. Ask any doughboy, of the many, many thousands who have 61 'PP iill ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER done a "hitch" on the Mexican border, what he thinks, for instance, of Ajo or the Yuma sector (see map, page 75). From the Gulf up to El Paso, along the Texas frontier, the Rio Grande forms the boundary between the United States and Mexico ; thence to the Pacific coast the line is marked by stone or iron monuments (save a short break at the Colorado), so set that one is supposed to be visible from another. By this plan a soldier, miner, or cowman (yes, and a smuggler, too) can always tell which side of the line he is on; or, if wholly lost and he comes suddenly on a monument, he can soon get oriented. The Rio Grande part of this border has caused both Uncle Sam and Mexico much work and mental anguish. During bad floods the line as formed by the river squirms around in so astonishing and lively a manner that what is Mexican soil one day may be in Texas the next, and vice versa. Then, too, there is the ever-recurring problem of dividing the waters of the river for irrigating purposes. Around such places as Laredo, Texas, this situ- ation affords many an acrimonious inter- national argument, especially during the low-water period in the summer. Sometimes the Texans open their sluices and threaten the ruin of the little fincas on the opposite bank; then the brown brother recalls the time when the grand Mexican State of Coahuila ex- tended westward to the Pacific Ocean and almost up to Kansas City, Missouri, and his remarks are quite untranslatable. When there is a heavy snowfall in the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the spring freshets fill the Rio Grande with a flood that brooks no turning; weirs, gates, and bridges are swept away, the river banks and the adjacent farms are often submerged, and the nagging contestants for the river's midsummer favors are forced to flee to the highlands. RAILROADS THAT CUT THE BORDER Railroads cut this long border line at Brownsville, Laredo, Eagle Pass, and El Paso, Texas ; at Douglas, Naco, and Nogales, in Arizona, and at Calexico and Tia Juana, in California. Only four of these railroads, however, are main lines of through traffic that penetrate the in- terior of Mexico; these start at Laredo, Eagle Pass, El Paso, and Nogales. Mexico itself, area considered, has comparatively few miles of railroad, and there is no line traversing its northern frontier east and west, like our Southern Pacific, which practically parallels most of our southern border. Mexicans are restless. The peons like to ride. Whenever they have saved money from a few days' work, they swarm up and down these lines to border towns, carrying women, children, bird- cages, blanket rolls, and family utensils, running to and fro apparently as aim- lessly as the inhabitants of a disturbed ant-hill. ALONG THE: TEXAN FRONTIER You visualize the bigness of Texas when you look at the length of its side that borders on Mexico. It has been said that "if you should tip the State up and drop it north, like a flapjack, it would fall on St. Paul; tip it east and it would splash in the Atlantic ; south, it would blot out most of Mexico." Its area is more than double that of the British Isles. You realize its emptiness, too, when you travel through some of its border regions, «where the population is less than two per square mile. If all the people in the United States were put in Texas, it would still be scarcely more than two thirds as crowded as England. . No section of the border has seen so much of adventure, tragedy, and turbu- lent activity as Texas. The flags of France, Spain, and Mexico have waved over it; for a time it flew its own Lone Star and also the Confederate flag. "If I owned Hades and Texas, I'd rent Texas and live in the other place," Phil Sheridan said when, as a young lieuten- ant, he stood "The Watch on the Rio Grande," way back in the 5o's. But since then Texas, like Arizona, has cast out its devils. It was absolutely "bone dry" long- before July I, 1919; today only the police can "tote" guns ; poker is taboo, and even bridge for a cent a point may land you in the "hoose gow" — Texas for juzgado (jail). In Brownsville you hear more Spanish than English, because most of the 8,000 people who live there are Mexicans. Till 64 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE l'10 railroad came, a few years ago, this remote, isolated region was practically unknown to Americans at large. It is still a wild, thinly populated, stock- growing district. The natives plow and haul largely with ox- teams. As one writer said, "Even if Texas has been occu- pied by white men for four cen- turies, it- is still somewhat new in spots — and big spots at that." Zachary Taylor built a fort in 1846 hard by this same Browns- ville. When his men got into a shooting scrape with Mexican soldiers from Matamoras they started the Mexican War, and the Rio Grande became the boundary between the two re- publics. Up the river from Browns- ville lies Laredo, most important border town in south Texas, even if an old map does call this vicinity "a wilderness filled with wild horses." Here you may still see the rums of old stone houses and tanks built by Span- ish planters generations ago. Laredo staged many dramatic events in the stirring annals of Texas. Today, however, the people have turned from ro- mance to onions. They shipped 2,500 carloads in one season. Till the International and Great Northern Railway ex- tended its line from San Anto- nio, Laredo also was shut off from the rest of Texas; now it is the main port of entry for traffic with Mexico City, over the Mexican National Railway. Eagle Pass, on up the Rio Grande, was a favorite camping spot for the California gold- hunters in '49. Yankee freight- ers from St. Louis, too, used to drive through here for Chihua- hua and Durango. Worn, weather-beaten carretas, clumsy carts with solid wood wheels sawn from huge logs and built wholly without nails or spikes, are occasionally seen even now, abandoned in some brush- ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 65 grown corral, reminding you of the slow, tedious transportation of early days, when it took a year to get freight from New York to Durango. Now a branch of the Southern Pacific strikes the border at Eagle Pass, and from the Mexican town of Piedras Ne- gras (Black Rocks), just opposite, a line of the Mexican National runs south into one of Mexico's most fertile regions. This gives Eagle Pass a brisk trade. No spot on the whole border affords more of impressive grandeur than the region about the mouth of the Pecos. This yellow, turbulent stream roars into the Rio Grande near the town of Del Rio, foaming along the bottom of a steep- walled canyon worn hundreds of feet deep in the solid rock. The Southern Pacific Railway crosses this canyon, near the border, on one of the greatest steel trestles ever built. At the old Fort at Camp Verde, north of Uvalde, is a relic of one of the oddest experiments ever made by our govern- ment. It is an Arab khan, in ruins now, but in its time an exact replica of the rectangular adobe caravansaries built along such caravan trails as that from Bagdad to Teheran. Back in 1856, when Jefferson Davis was Secretary of War and the famous experiment was made with camels for army transport use be- tween Texas and California, this khan was built.* As you follow the border west, oaks, pines, and underbrush decrease, aridity increases, and cacti lift their thorny heads. Cattle, goats, and sheep are pastured in large numbers ; but, except for irrigated areas along the river, the country is thinly settled and undeveloped. Border counties like Brewster, Presidio, and El Paso are of amazing area — larger than some of our small eastern States. Windmills are everywhere — "big electric fans to keep * Camel transportation along the Mexican border was undertaken by the government with two herds, totaling about 75 animals, including a few two-humped Bactrian males, imported for breeding purposes. Six Arabs and a Bedouin camel doctor came along, from Smyrna to Texas. Lieutenant Edward F. Beale, under orders to establish a military road from San Antonio to California, used these camels in transport work. The camels were given a thorough test, and in Beak's report he spoke in highest terms of their work ; but army horses the cattle cool," a waggish cowboy once explained to a London tenderfoot. El Paso ("The Pass"), great border mart of west Texas, is set on the edge of a rich stretch of the Rio Grande Val- ley. It stands at the point of intersec- tion of two old highways, the first chan- nels of traffic established by white men in America. A popular automobile trail to the Pa- cific coast now runs this way. Coronado, pathfinder for border tourists, blazed the way in 1540, on his march to Santa Fe, and long ago El Paso was the headquar- ters for the Spanish Government in this part of America. THE ONLY LARGE CITY BETWEEN SAN ANTONIO AND LOS ANGELES El Paso is the only large city from "San Antone" to Los Angeles, a ride of 1,500 dry, dusty miles. It is well served by both American and Mexican railways, and its merchants buy and sell goods for hundreds of miles below the Rio Grande. Despite the arid country about it and its occasional blinding dust-storms, its cli- mate is exceptionally good, owing to high elevation. Summer showers afford a rainfall of about 10 inches. Soil is fertile in the valleys cutting the adjacent plateau coun- try, and good crops are grown wherever ample irrigation is possible. The largest irrigation reservoir any- where is the great Elephant Butte dam, which stores more water than the world- famous Assuan dam on the Nile. This big dam, built in the Rio Grande above El Paso, at a point in New Mexico, holds water enough, we are told, "to fill a stand- pipe 1 1 feet in diameter reaching from El Paso to the moon, or to cover Massa- chusetts to a depth of six inches!" Enough water can be stored to last through four dry seasons and to irrigate and pack -mules were stampeded ; obstinate mule-skinners refused to handle "circus ani- mals" ; so finally the camels were disposed of. Most of them were sold to zoological parks, but a few either got away or were turned loose on the desert. Prospectors, enraged when these ungainly brutes terrified their pack-mules, used to shoot them on sight. Even now, once in a while a desert rat drifts into Yuma or Gila Bend and vows he's seen a wild camel on the desert. Maybe he did, but nobody believes him. 6G THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Harry A. Lawton PRIMITIVE WATER-CARTS IN USE ALONG THE MEXICAN BORDER Tn some portions of Mexico the maximum rainfall approaches world records, hut in the north, along the border, water rights are at a premium. Feuds, accompanied by the use of dynamite in diverting irrigation channels, have occurred in the cotton-growing lands of Lower California and Sonora. In many cases the supply of water permitted to flow through the irrigation ditches is calculated down to the very minutes per month. 300 square miles : but by an international agreement a part of the water goes to irrigate land in Mexico. Fort Bliss, one of our largest perma- nent military barracks, is built just out- side El Paso. JUAREZ, A CITY KNOWN CHIEFLY FOR ITS BATTLES AND GAY AMERICAN TOURISTS Juarez, El Paso's sister city across the Rio Grande, like most Mexican border towns, is known chiefly because of its pitched battles and its bizarre methods of entertaining sporty American visitors. Whatever it enjoys of life and prosperity it draws from Yankee tourist patronage. A wooden bridge spans the river here, and El Paso street-cars loop over into Mexico — when the looping is safe. Thousands of tourists swarm across this bridge each year to play the races, have a fling at keno or chuck-a-luck, or ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 67 Photograph from Frank H. Probert AN ORNATE WROUGHT-IRON GATEWAY TO ONE OF MEXICO'S CITIES OF THE DEAD Many of the cemeteries of the southern republic suggest the catacombs of Rome and the Campo Santo of Genoa. Tombs are rented by the month or year, and when the relatives of the departed fail to pay the fee required, the sheeted dead are unceremoniously dispossessed, theif bones being thrown upon a pile where hundreds of others have suffered a like fate. to mail .'bullfight or ballerina picture pos- tals to the home folks to show that the writer has been "gay, blithe, and devilish in foreign parts." It is a typical Mexican frontier town of squat, one-story adobe houses (plas- tered and painted light blue or pink), of tiendas, plazas, casinos, bull rings, Chi- nese restaurants, curio stores, and often a few lurking American derelicts waiting here till the sheriffs in their home towns are dead. Like the natives of Nogales, Agua Prieta, and Naco, most of the peons of Juarez make a living by working in the adjacent American border town — swarm- ing to the American side, carrying babies and bundles, when the rebel alarm is raised. From Juarez, Mexican railways lead off south, connecting with most im- portant interior cities. ONLY EIGHT INCHES OF RAINFALL ALONG THE LINE From the point at Monument No. I where the boundary line crawls out of the Rio Grande (at the southeast corner of New Mexico), it strikes west into a wilderness of singularly dry and empty aspect. For 40 miles along this march the traveler must carry his own water. Near Columbus a few small trees ap- pear, and here, too, a wagon trail from Deming down to the American Mormon colonies in Chihuahua crosses the border. To the west lie the rough, hostile foot- hills of the Dog Mountains; near here, in the San Luis Range, the line reaches 68 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Harry A. A SHADY LANE: ON A HACIENDA IN SONORA Small farms are almost unknown in Mexico. The haciendas are vast landed estates embodying many features of the medieval feudal system. Until. a few years ago, the haciendas were in the hands of 6,000 persons among a population of nearly 15,000,000. Some of these estates extended over scores of square miles and had as many as fifty miles of irrigation ditches within their bounds. ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 69 a point 6,600 feet above the sea, marking the continental divide. When that re- doubtable outlaw, "The Apache Kid," led his renegade Chiricahuas, they made this locality their rendezvous ; and through this same San Luis Pass runs the old emigrant trail. Slightly west of the loSth meridian, the line turns at right angles and runs south for a few miles, thence west again. In the San Bernardino Valley the line strikes the first running water after quit- ting the Rio Grande — 192 miles to the east. Here rises the famous Yaqui River, that long, crooked stream that meanders through the vast Mexican State of So- nora and through the turbulent Yaqui Indian zone, finally emptying into the Gulf of California below Guaymas. Thousands of cattle find pasture around the marshy flats of this San Bernardino Valley, and here an old Spanish trading post lies in ruins. In the whole 7OO-mile stretch from the Rio Grande to the Pacific, this line crosses only five permanent running streams, and the average rainfall throughout its length is only eight inches. This border was first fixed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and sub- sequently modified by the Gadsden Treaty, or "The Treaty of Mesilla." In 1891-1896 a new joint commission erected the present monuments, the origi- nal heaps of stone having in many places been tampered with or carried away by prospectors for use as mine-boundary markers. These modern tombstone-like obelisks are made of rock where rock is available ; in other places cast-iron monu- ments are set up on cement pedestals. They are never more than five miles apart. Save the hamlets of Columbus and Hachita, the New Mexican section of this border is almost uninhabited. WHEN APACHE: HUNTING WAS THE GREAT SPORT Hurdling this line in pursuit of Geron- imo and his Apaches was for years a favorite outdoor army sport in these parts ; but nowadays most ambitious resi- dents are mining copper, roping and branding cattle, or fussing with irriga- tion ditches. Around the camps and corrals, how- ever, many grizzled freighters and post traders of earlier days are still loitering; and, true to form, they would rather talk of outlaws, stage-robbers, and historic killings than listen to a farm adviser tell how to outwit weevils or vaccinate a heifer. One of these old-timers told me how he once slew eight broncho Apaches, and then hung them up by their feet to a stout mesquite tree near Lochiel ; and that same night a hastening party of Las Cruces peddlers, bound for Hermosillo with a wagon-load of calico, came up and unwittingly camped almost beneath the live oak where the dead Apaches were hanging. Suddenly discovering the ter- rifying display, the peddlers hastily hitched up and did not make camp till they reached Magdalena, miles to the south. ^ Today the tamed Apache up around Globe is about the most trustworthy, dili- gent, and industrious farm laborer to be found in the State ; and the two-gun man has gone to the movie studios of Califor- nia, where the risk is nil and the stakes more certain. Freight wagons along the border are replaced by big auto-trucks, and the old trails are turned into motor highways covered with "camping-out" trippers whose cars bear pennant labels of towns from Peoria to Pasadena. PUBLIC BATHS WHERE COYOTES RECENTLY ROAMED Not long ago coyotes were chasing horned toads over an empty desert where Douglas now stands, with libraries, coun- try clubs, theaters, a great Y. M. C. A., public baths, street-cars, and a hotel that might have been lifted bodily out of Cleveland or Kansas City. The giant smelters at Douglas have run day and night since they were built, a dozen years ago, and have handled thousands of trainloads of ores from Bis- bee and Nacozari (in Spnora). At night white-hot streams of molten slag, pour- ing on the dumps, throw great light flashes against the sky, remindful of Pittsburgh. During a six months' busy period in 1916 the "Copper Queen" and "Calumet and Arizona" smelters handled 131,000,000 pounds of copper, which at, say, 25 cents a pound, would give a value of $32,000,000. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Underwood & Underwood MEXICAN FUEL VENDERS AND PULQUE GATHERERS IN A CACTUS LANE Thorny cacti such as these provide an almost impenetrable wall, from which even the hardiest trespasser shrinks. ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 71 Just over the line from Douglas lies Agua Prieta, from which point an Amer- ican-owned railway runs south to the mining town of Nacozari, where the model mining camp of all Mexico is op- erated by the Moctezuma Copper Com- pany, an American corporation. Drab, dusty Agua Prieta, with its sleepy peons and sad-eyed burros, has a singular faculty of suddenly coming to life and getting front-page publicity from Boston to San Francisco. In its tumul- tuous recent years it has experienced everything from kidnapping, lynching, and robberies to artillery duels with Villa. Lately a person who coveted his neighbor's ass was found swaying on a rope, with this placard tied to his dan- gling feet: "He stole mules." Douglas is about 4,000 feet above sea- level, with 14 inches of rain annually. Ten years ago the land hereabouts was empty. Today artesian wells are flow- ing— some as much as 600 gallons a min- ute— caterpillar tractors crawl across the vast Cochise, Sulphur Springs, and Para- dise valleys, and the remaining unappro- priated land is fast being filed on. There are three methods by which land is se- cured: direct purchase from the govern- ment, homesteading, and under the Des- ert Land Act. West of Douglas, eight miles north of Naco, on the line, and quite hidden in the barren Mule Mountains, lies the quaint, up-side-down, busy, hustling Bisbee. Its main street runs up a deep canyon, many of its houses clinging like pigeon cotes to steep hillsides. In times of freshet, mad torrents tear through it ; once water was several feet deep through the lower floors of stores and houses. "Tombstone Street" and "Brewery Gulch" are suggestive of earlier and woollier days. The popular Borderland Highway, connecting El Paso, Douglas, and Tuc- son with California, passes this way. Part of this route hereabouts was built with prison labor, under the "honor sys- tem" of Governor Hunt. From Naco, notorious border village astride the line, the El Paso and South- Avestern Railway strikes off northwest for Tucson. To the southwest runs a "branch of the Southern Pacific of Mex- ico, serving the great Cananea Consoli- dated mines (American owned) and con- necting at Del Rio, Sonora, with the Nogales branch of the same railway. West from Naco, conspicuous in the vast grassy stretches of the San Pedro Valley, the straight row of stone monu- ments marches on, to climb into the wooded Huachuca Range ; and a few miles to the northwest lies the shell of ancient, iniquitous, profligate Tombstone. WHEN TOMBSTONE AC1IIEVED FAME The baffling psychology of names is no- where more strikingly shown than here. From the day in 1878 when Ed Schiefflin, dodging Apaches, slipped into this can- yon with his burros and struck the ledge that made him millions, Tombstone achieved fame. Motor parties on the Overland trail now pass this old pros- pector's tomb — an odd pyramid of boul- ders near the spot that made him rich. Here were such mines as the "Ground Hog'' and the "Lucky Cuss." Ore from the latter ran $9,000 a ton. The very name of the town drew the world's atten- tion to it. Here one pioneer jester oc- casionally issued the famous Arizona Kicker, whose heroes used guns that shot around corners and up stove-pipes. An- other sheet is (or was) named the Epi- taph; and hereabouts, later on, the lively imagination of Alfred Henry Lewis gave us the "Wolfville" stories. Climbing the Santa Cruz River west of old Camp Duquesne, the line runs over high, rolling grassy hills scantily covered with stunted live-oaks, and fairly splits in half the important border city of Nogales, entrepot for all the trade of the Southern Pacific of Mexico. From this point branch lines also strike off north to Tucson and northeast to Benson. Through this gap in the hills that Nogales now fills runs the ancient trail, worn ages ago by Toltecs and Aztecs and followed later by Spaniards and Jesuits in their advance from Guadalajara to California. Famous Father Keno (or Kuhn, to give him his real name) passed this way, and a few miles north of Nogales, in the Santa Cruz Valley, the ruined mission of Tumacacori (now a national monument) still rears its bat- tered head. Hard by lies the ancient Presidio of Tubac, where for years a Spanish garri- '•. t+H o o S 0 £S rt ,i;=~ uo c On ° -C > 0 +J rt <-i <U *-> CL W JC .ti OJ {-i -t-> 4) tfl to 0 ^33^ o « « b5 u 8 s-°s o rt a) *> 8 3*a •^1 O frt V- — U M^ g "So P 2 fe^^l C3 ~ *? ^ " !_^ /i ^ C tt „ »- *- Q C C ^ ^llfl W ^ r v W c W ^ 43 o </>*£ >< l«ifes o£ ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 73 son was kept and whence Don Juan Bau- tista de Anza set out in 1774 to build a highway to California. It was this same Don Juan who chose the site for San Francisco on the Golden Gate. Today near Tubac an American rubber company has bought thousands of acres of Santa Cruz Valley land and is farm- ing guayule on a big scale for the manu- facture of rubber. Nurseries for propa- gation of young plants are set up and a model town of cement houses and shady streets for the employees is already built. Nogales, 3,800 feet above the sea, en- joys a singularly prosperous trade for a town of its size. The declared exports from Mexico run as much as twenty mil- lions a year. As at other important border towns, adequate military forces are stationed here, with permanent bar- racks, hospitals, recreation halls, and stables. Some 12,000 people live on the American side of the line, and a some- what lesser number in the Mexican town. For police purposes, a high barbed wire fence is strung along the boundary line here, dividing the twin cities. Nogales has foundries, bonded ware- houses, strong banks, daily papers, and clubs, and is surrounded by rich mines and profitable cattle ranches. Nothing along the whole border is more chastely beautiful than the old Mis- sion of San Xavier del Bac, just south of Tucson, on the Nogales highway. It is pure white, visible for miles across the desert, and is built in the form of a cross. It is really one of the great his- toric memorials of the United States. Nowadays the peaceful Pimas work their little farms and come devoutly to mass in this old church, where years ago other Pimas slew the priests and tried to de- stroy the building. A short ride west of Nogales the due- west trend of the line is broken, and it veers northwest by west, straight to the Colorado River, striking that stream a few miles below Yuma. This part of the boundary was first explored and run by one John Bartlett, after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase. No section of the whole boundary line is so wild, dry, uninhabited, and little known as this which stretches from Sasabe to the Yuma desert. Only a few smugglers, Yaqui gun-runners, and the wary, tireless line- riders who hunt them really know much of this arid, empty waste. A $6OO,OOO SUBSIDY FOR A STAGE-COACH After this Gadsden Purchase survey, Congress in 1853 granted money for ex- ploring a railway route from the Missis- sippi to California ; but trains did not run till 31 years later. In 1857, however, mail and passenger stages were started, under a government subsidy of $600,000 a year. This line used 100 Concord stages, 1,000 horses, 500 mules, and about 150 drivers. The fare from St. Louis to San Francisco via this border route was $100. Official orders defined the border route in part as ''from Preston, Texas, to the best point of crossing on the Rio Grande, and not far from Fort Fillmore ; thence along the new road being opened and constructed, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, to Fort Yuma ; thence through the best passes and along the best valleys for safe and expeditious staging to San Francisco." But that part of the trail from Tubac, Arizona, to California was worn and old long before the lumbering Concord stages, making a hundred miles a day, began to use it. Rafael Amador, an official courier with messages from Santa Ana to the Gov- ernor of California, rode from Mexico City to Monterey in some 40 days. Though stripped and robbed by the Yumas and nearly dead of thirst and hunger, yet he made it. The coming of General Kearny, with his "Army of the West," to attack the Mexicans in California, in 1847, ^rst mapped out this border trail and made it the main traveled route for the forty- niners. Fully 8,000 passed this way, many dying of thirst. Once in a while prospectors out of Yuma still come upon rusting parts of schooners or whitened bones of men and mules. Kit Carson, too, made a memorable dash across this desert in '47, with a young army officer named Beale, carry- ing dispatches from the Fremont party to Washington. (This same Beale later introduced camels into the desert traffic. See footnote, page 65.) Significant of changing things, scores 74 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of well-to-do travelers now desert the comfortable Pullmans to motor along the borderland trails, following the old stage route past historic Tombstone and San Xavier. Most motor tourists, however, use the Santa Fe trail via the Petrified Forest, Flagstaff, and Needles. These motor trails are fairly well maintained and are amply marked ,with sign-boards as to direction, distances, and the prox- imity of water and gasoline. BEEF IS EVERYWHERE No feature of the trip along this border from El Paso to Nogales is more amaz- ing than the vast numbers of meat-bear- ing animals to be observed. Besides introducing the horse, the provident Spaniard also brought cattle, sheep, and goats ; and it is probably to Juan de Onate, who reached the South- west about 1598, that we owe our present wealth of mutton and beef. As the country was settled, cattle- raising grew as an industry, and, there being no fences, the herder or cowboy was developed. From these Mexican or Spanish vaqucros we learned the use of the "rope," or lariat — corrupted from La Riata. From them, too, we learned to "cut" an animal from a herd, and to brand for identification. However, due to Indian raids, it was years after Americans entered this region before the cattle industry was safe enough to be profitable. After Kit Carson rounded up the Navajos at Bosque Redondo, and after Crook gave the Apaches a final walloping at Hell's Hip Pocket (near Fish Creek Hill, on the modern Apache motor road past Roosevelt Dam), the cowman's trade was easier. Then the rise of the cattle baron began. Might was law, and the sheepman and farmer were out of luck. Of course, law and order long ago in- tervened, and the cow and sheep men no longer "draw" on sight and start shoot- ing. But the cowpuncher still has his own opinion of any man who keeps a sheep ! Feuds between rival cow camps are no more ; it is no longer good form to brand the other fellow's calves, even if you can "get away with it." Border cat- tlemen now have associations organized to secure better freight rates, protective laws, and cooperation in marketing cat- tle. Many cowmen run herds on both sides of the line. But you can still tell a Texas cowman from his brother in Arizona. The Texas hat, saddle, cinch, bit — even the Texas talk and mental attitude — are quite dif- ferent from the Arizona article. At Yuma, where the Southern Pacific now bridges the Colorado, thousands of immigrants were ferried over in days gone by, and Yuma Indians once slew the ferryman and many other whites. South of Yuma, for a short distance, the Colorado River forms the boundary between the United States and Mexico, the line here running almost north and south. Below the railroad bridge it quits the river, and strikes due west across the Imperial Valley Canal (running into Mexico here), and thence into the sand hills and on to the Imperial Valley. No other part of the United States is so hot as this. Often the thermometer stands at more than a hundred at mid- night; day shade temperatures of 125 t Fahrenheit are common. Sahara-like sand-storms blow, so that even stretches of the plank auto road west of Yuma are soon lost in the dunes, and have to be excavated when the storm has passed. CATTLE SUFFOCATED BY SAND A tale is told of one poor Arizona cow- man who was driving his small herd to the California market. He had just com- pleted the journey across the desert when night overtook his outfit. With it came a sand-storm. The cattle, lying down thirsty and jaded, were actually covered with the drifting sand, being too tired to stir and keep above it. When dawn came the desert about was covered with mounds and dusty shapes, with here and there a pair of horns pro- truding. The cattle had suffocated. Curiously enough, too, steamboats once ran from San Francisco to Arizona! During a period following our Civil War, steamers plied the California coast, came around the peninsula of Lower California into the Gulf, and thence up the Colorado River to Yuma. For many years the main bulk of supplies for the Arizona miners came in this way. Above Yuma the government's great Laguna Dam project is built, and all about the city fertile farms are developed. ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 75 I 0 SO 100 200 30O 400 Drawn by A. H. Bumstead A LONG, CROOKED LINE I THE HISTORIC UNITED STATES-MEXICO BOUNDARY Some of the wildest and least-known regions of our country are piled up against this border. From the Gulf of Mexico up to El Paso, along the Texas frontier, the Rio Grande forms the boundary; thence to the Pacific coast the line is marked by monuments of stone and iron, so set that one is supposed to be visible from another. Bird life abounds along the Yuma-to- Calexico section of the boundary, espe- cially along the river delta. Here one may see ducks, geese, gulls, brown eagles, hawks, blue herons, couriers del caniino, or "road-runners," elf owls, humming- birds, and, among the mountains on the western edge of the Colorado desert, even occasionally that greatest of all American birds, the giant condor. When sitting erect these birds sometimes measure four feet in height. A prize assortment of reptiles and in- sects is scattered along this border trail, much discussed by nervous newcomers who "camp out" for the first time. Rattlers, side-winders, scorpions, centi- pedes, tarantulas, and the lazy, sluggish Gila monster (Hcloderma sitspectuni), to say nothing of the flat, toad-like chuck- walla and a variety of other lizards, live a happy life. Then there are also the banded gekko lizard, the horned toad, and the desert tortoise. (In a lion's den on the Sonora side south of Ajo, I found a number of land tortoise shells, indicat- ing that the lioness had brought these turtles in as food for her young.) Along the New Mexico and Arizona borders occurs a distinctively interesting bird life. The big Texas "scale quail" has now walked as far west as Sasabe, on the Arizona line. A few years ago it was unknown in these parts. In his ''Distributional List of the Birds of Arizona," Harry S. Swarth gives a total of 362 species and subspecies. Many of these, however, are transients, being winter or summer visitors. In June and July the white-winged Sonora pigeon comes across the border by the tens of thousands. In small, almost dry "tanks," or Arizona ponds, I have shot the crooked bill curlew. Yes, shore-birds in Arizona ! In springtime the desert areas are bright with flowers. New Mexico and Arizona have an indigenous flora almost as large as California. A hundred mem- bers of the cactus family are in evidence, affording food to rabbits, gophers, field- rats, birds, beetles, and deer, as well as to cattle and burros. Were it not for their thorns, these plants would .probably be utterly destroyed by these troops of hungry animals. A DESERT LABORATORY ESTABLISHED To aid farmers in getting better crops, a desert laboratory has been set up near Tucson, where a study of desert plant life is being carried on. Eventually, per- ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 77 haps, science will help the desert to fur- nish us with plants good for food and other purposes, even in areas where there is no water for irrigation. Remnants of the low, filthy Cocopah tribe of Indians still inhabit the mud flats along the delta of the Colorado, catching fish, growing watermelons, or killing rabbits in the tides with clubs. These Indians are most indifferent to whites, ignoring them utterly. Once I was in the vicinity of Volcano Lake when an aviator had been lost. Other planes came seeking the missing man, roaring and swooping over lagoons and mud flats. Cocopah Indians, loitering near, took only a casual glance at their first aeroplane and went indifferently about their simple tasks. THE YUMA MEDICINE: MAN is LOSING HIS JOB If you wander off the beaten trail, say down below the railroad bridge over the Colorado at Yuma, you may see a group of naked Yuma Indians sitting in the water up to their necks, their heads cov- ered with mud to keep cool, "looking like a herd of seals," as one writer says. Up near Banning, in the Coahuila set- tlement, thev still have a medicine man, but he is about out of a job. Sugar- coated pills from the traders' stores and the free medicine the missionaries pass out appeal more and more. Their houses are built of poles, arrow- weed, palm leaves, and willows. Grana- ries, too, looking like giant bird nests, are woven from willows and arrow-weed in dish-like shape. The basket-weavers, making designs of birds, turtles, and lizards, are dying out. A few old tattooed Coahuilas are seen ; they used to employ the mesauite thorn as a needle and rub the juice of mesquite leaves into the cuts, thus making a green- ish tattoo design. They eat the chuck- walla lizard ; also mesquite and screw- beans, first pounded fine into flour in a crude wooden mortar. By far the most industrious, resoecta- ble Indians in these parts are the Pimas, of southern Arizona. On their reserva- tion southwest of Tucson these people farm as successfully as the whites ; their work animals are fat ; their wagons are new or freshly painted, and their harness is in repair. With characteristic Indian reserve, they pretend to know no Spanish or English, but under compelling emer- gency many of them can converse in both languages. Of our whole border, the California section is best known to Americans be- cause of denser population, excellent motor trails, and proximity of cities like San Diego, Los Angeles, El Centro, and the below-the-sea border town of Calex- ico, opposite Mexicali. These Imperial Valley twin towns are really one city, split by the international line and each named by peculiar reverse arrangement of the first syllables of the words Mexico and California. The incredibly fertile Imperial Valley of California sweeps north from Calex- ico to the Salton Sea, more than 200 feet below sea-level. The oft-told tale of this valley's fight against Colorado River floods and the eventual rise of a thriving community of 60,000 people, with farms worth maybe a hundred millions, is one of the romantic stories of this never-say- quit West. From Calexico the line runs west past Signal Mountain, up the Jacumba Pass over the Lagunas, past the historic bor- der town of Campo (once the stronghold of hellward gentry, now mostly fled, dead, or reformed), through the towns of Tecate and Tia Juana (famous for races and gambling casinos), and thence to the Pacific. Motor highways parallel the line, one on each side of it, from Calexico-Mexi- cali to San Diego and Tia Juana. The road on the Mexican side was built by the Mexican Government as a military highway. The San Diego and Arizona Railway enters Lower California (Mexico) at Tia Juana, rambles east through rocky canyons and cattle-covered, brushy hills for a few miles, and then reenters Cali- fornia at the town of Tecate by tunnel- ing under the international line, thus literally forming an underground trail from Mexico into the United States. From here it runs east through Campo, over the mountains and down into the Imperial Valley. Another road, the International Rail- way, enters Lower California at Mexi- cali, winds east some 60 miles or more 1 ALONG OUR SIDE OF THE MEXICAN BORDER 79 through a flat, productive cotton country, and then crosses back into California just west of the Colorado River, near Yuma, where it joins the Southern Pacific sys- tem. Such is life along the Mexican border. All kinds of men live here, except poor white men. Few are vastly rich and few are dissatisfied with the country. Immi- grants come, conquer the desert, and build comfortable homes. Few ever go back East. Something in the spell of the hazy mountains, the charm of bright skies, and the lure of open ranges holds them here. And there is no leisure class ; every- body works. I know one miner worth thirty millions. Last summer he sneaked off alone — dodging mail, telegrams, and directors' meetings — to work with his hands for a month, incognito, on the homestead where he'd lived as a boy. UNCLE SAM'S WORK ON THE: BORDER; WHO DOES IT, AND HOW Uncle Sam's interests along the border are cared for by three branches of the government — the War, Treasury, and Labor Departments — working through the army, the customs, and the immigra- tion services respectively. The State De- partment is also represented by consuls at the larger Mexican border towns of Matamoras, Laredo, Juarez, Nogales, and Mexicali ; but they are concerned only with affairs on Mexican soil. Since the Diaz regime passed into his- tory, we have kept troops at all our bor- der towns, with cavalry patrols between stations. These forces assist local civil- ian authorities in preserving order and checking the violation of our neutrality laws. They aid in preventing gun-run- ning and the entry into Mexico of expe- ditions organized in the United States and bent on crossing the line and taking the field against the government of Mex- ico. About 20,000 of our men, of all arms, are. now scattered along the border from Brownsville to San Diego. The border is divided into three cus- toms districts — the Texas, the New Mex- ico - Arizona, and the California — and the collectors are stationed at El Paso, Nogales, and Los Angeles. Deputy col- lectors are stationed at smaller towns, like Brownsville, Laredo, Columbus, Douglas, Naco, Yuma, Calexico, Tecate, etc. The collectors have wide discretion. Besides the routine duties of their offices, they keep the Treasury Department in- formed as to economic conditions on the Mexican side of the line. Then there are the "line riders," a group of mounted customs inspectors. They are a brave, hardy, and resolute class ; they know and watch all the cattle trails and smugglers' passes through the remote border sections. Mostly bow- legged, saddle - born, southwesterners, frequently ex-rangers, these solitary men often spend a whole week in the open, sleeping, perhaps, on the ground in bad weather, on a still hunt for the equally capable smuggler. Frequently enormously valuable car- goes of opium are landed on the Mexican west coast and finally spirited into the United States. A short time ago as much as eighty thousand dollars' worth of "canned hop" is known to have been landed and stored within 60 miles of the line. The profits in this trade are so huge, the tins of opium are so small and easily carried, that the traffic tempts many a crafty man to have a try at quick, easy money. Small-fry smugglers resort to such amateurish expedients as carry- ing opium over the line in bicycle tires, "trick" suit-cases, or in the tool-boxes of motor cars; but the daring gangs, who "run hop" on a big scale, usually work in armed bands, at night, taking a chance on dodging the line-rider or "shooting it out" with him. THE MOST DIFFICULT BORDER TASK Our immigration inspectors have the most difficult task on the border. They must meet, question, and make a record of every alien man, woman, or child that crosses the border. They collect certain head-taxes, and can refuse admission to certain classes (who may appeal). Many aliens sneak into the country without inspection, crossing the border at lonely, remote points. Certain orien- tals are very clever at this, and there are known channels of illicit "underground" traffic. Many Chinese are smuggled in, negro porters on trains coming out of Mexico at one time doing a hustling trade. American smugglers have for 80 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE years engaged in running "yellow con- traband" from the Mexican west coast, using speedy motor-boats and landing their hidden passengers as far north as Oakland. As much as $600 a head is sometimes collected on these smuggled immigrants. BORDER TURMOIL HAS BROUGHT FORTUNES TO MANY The ill winds that have wasted Mexico have enriched many residents of Amer- ican border towns. Hundreds of wealthy Mexican families have removed to the border States, depositing their wealth in our banks and business industries. Banks in certain Yankee border towns have paid as high as from 80 per cent to 200 per cent dividends. Sensational profits have been made on quick cattle deals and fluctuations in Mexican ex- change. Much money was made and lost, too, in the time of the "billumbiques" or fiat money, issued by various factions during the early years of the Mexican revolu- tion. Some of this paper money, origi- nally supposed to be worth two for one (two pesos to one American dollar), finally fell in price until it was quoted at 50 for I, loo for I, and even T.OOO for T. A tale is told of a poor long-haired In- dian at Agua Prieta who went crazy in a barber-shop trying to figure out how many billumbiques it would cost him to pay for a hair cut ! Mexican Government purchasing agents come in a constant stream to these fron- tier towns to buy supplies. They bring suit-cases of money and buy by the car- load— buy not only animals, uniforms, provisions, motors, vehicles, harness, guns, ammunition, etc., but they also buy school supplies, machinery, tools, and furniture for use in various government- owned institutions. In towns like Calexico, El Paso, and Nogales, certain shrewd Americans (mostly born in Poland and Syria), who were mere peddlers or "shoe-string" mer- chants ten years ago, now own handsome homes, send their children to fashionable schools in the East, and motor out to the California beaches each summer with their almost incredible, but highly de- lighted, wives. Border brokers make cash advances to speculative traders, who go into Mexico and buy herds of cattle, cargoes of gar- banzos and tomatoes, hides and ores. These imports become ready money, once they reach the American side of the line, and the handsome margin of profit stays in the border towns. No part of the United States has seen more prosperity in the last decade than some of these small border ports of entry. Commission agents, customs brokers, import and export houses, and mining and plantation machinery agents thrive here. The regions of Arizona and New Mexico that crowd against the line are not in themselves particularly rich except in minerals ; yet some firms here handle tremendous volumes of goods each year, most of which is sold in Mexico. Nogales and Douglas have trebled their populations in the past decade, and thou- sands of Mexicans have moved across the line, increasing the already high per- centage of Mexicans residing in our border States. TO THE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES of the National Geographic Society calls attention to the increase in dues for all members elected after July i, 1920. This increase has become necessary owing to unprecedented increases in everything pertaining to publication since January 1st ; for example, of 50 per cent in the cost of printing, and of 88 per cent in the cost of the special quality of paper upon which THE GEOGRAPHIC is printed, and which cannot be cheapened without materially impair- ing the clarity and beauty of illustrations which have made your magazine unique in periodical literature. As noted on the Recommendation for Membership blank, the annual membership dues in the United States are now $3.00; annual member- ship abroad, $4.00; Canada, $3.50; life membership, $50.00. VOL. XXXVIII, No. 2 WASHINGTON AUGUST, 1920 THE ATHOWfAn <4r~A ii U^/Jl\lyH\JL</ OGMAP AGAZI ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS BY WILLIAM H. HALL AUTHOR OF "UNDER THE HEEL OF THE TURK" IF THE land of the Garden of Eden is half so fertile and well watered to- day as it was in the time of its first occupants, its possession is well w.orth the hardships of a long and difficult gnlitary campaign. When the British Army en- tered the city of Bagdad, in the spring of 1917, Eden was won and made a part of the British Empire. For the production of cotton, corn, and dates, the Valley of Mesopotamia is un- surpassed, and, according to all calcula- tions, it is still capable of supporting a population of fifty millions, whose main occupation would be the cultivation of the soil and the preparation of the abundant products of this most wonderfully fertile region for the markets of the world. Some of the products of this valley go out by way of the Persian Gulf and are consumed in India, but by far the greater portion will eventually go westward, to supply the looms of Europe or to feed and clothe her industrial millions. FORTUNE'S WHEEL TURNS TO ANTIOCH ONCE MORE The natural outlet for all this wealth is not the long haul over the Bagdad Railway to Smyrna and Constantinople, some 1,500 miles, but the short haul, past the city of Aleppo, to some harbor of the Mediterranean coast — Alexandretta, where the great Macedonian brought final defeat to the Persian hordes, or to the ancient harbor of Seleucia, seaport of the city of Antioch. For a thousand years Antioch was the capital city that ruled the industries, trade, and commerce of the Euphrates and Tigris valleys. And now the turn of Fortune's wheel is again about to di- rect the stream of trade past her doors. While this is being written a large force of Arab and Turkish Nationalists is lying behind the ancient walls of Justinian that surround the modern city of Antioch. Within the city a little force of some 506 French soldiers is holding back the be- siegers. In the days of its glory the people of Antioch were gathered in the great thea- ter listening to a famous actress while the Persians were besieging the city. They trusted to their splendid fortifica- tions and feared naught. At a point in the play the actress paused, while, with arm outstretched toward the mountain above the city, she exclaimed, "Behold, the Persians are come !" There was great applause, the audience thinking it a fine bit of stage play ; but as a shower of ar- rows darkened the sky, the people turned to behold that instead of play it was reality. The enemy was within the walls, and plunder and destruction had already begun. THE CITY OF BEN HUR'S TRIUMPH When we read the story of Ben Hur and follow him about the streets of that splendid city, or enter with him the pal- aces of the rich, or see Messala gaming with his friends in the magnificent palace 82 'HE XATTOXA1. GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by American Colony, Jerusalem A VIEW OF MODERN ANTIOCH FROM MOUNT STLPIUS In the middle background winds the silver thread of the Orontes River. Beyond stretch the fertile plains for many miles toward the Amanus range of mountains. ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 83 on the island in the Orontes, or watch with breathless interest as the hero guides the four fleet Arab steeds through the mazes of the chariot race, Antioch seems a fabled city of ancient times, living in story only. It is hard to come to reality and think of American Fords and Italian Fiats rushing along the roads where Ben Hur guided his matchless Arab steeds, or of great motor lorries trundling across the plain where the long trains of camels brought their caravans of riches from the East. The hippodrome where Ben Hur, the Jew, contested with Messala, the Roman, is in ruins, but the East and the West are just as surely in conflict today. The purpose of this story is to place again before the reader a city that has been the capital of the Nearer East, and that in the near future may again become a controlling factor in the trade of the Levant. It is the story of Antioch the Glorious. SELEUCUS VISITS A SHRINE ON MOUNT CASIUS Fleeing for his life across the Syrian Desert, with scarcely fifty horsemen at his back, was not an auspicious opening for a young man ambitious to found a kingdom of his own. But such is the picture of Seleucus Nicator, favorite of Alexander the Great, commander of the Macedonian Horse, Governor of Baby- lon, and finally head of the House of Seleucus, which for nearly three hundred years ruled an empire stretching at times from India to the ^Egean Sea. The break up of Alexander's empire brought two decades of strife, resulting in the emergence of four great divi- sions— Egypt at the south, Macedonia and Greece to the west, Asia Minor m the north, and Syria, with Mesopotamia, in the center and east. Victory at the Battle of Ipsus, in 301 B. C., gave Seleu- cus control over this Syrian kingdom. Almost the first act of Seleucus after his victory was to proceed to a sacred shrine on the summit of Mount Casius, and there offer sacrifices of thanksgiving to Zeus. Of all the splendid mountains in Syria, none is more beautiful, more dignified, more mysterious, than Mount Casius of the ancients, Jebal Akra of the Arabs, Bald Mountain as it would be in simple English. From whatever side it is viewed, it is a regular cone, 6,000 feet in height, so steep that it can be ascended only from the eastern side, and then with difficulty. From its summit to the sea on the west and the Orontes River on the north, the sides are so unbroken by foothills and valleys that it seems as if a boulder started at the top would roll without hindrance to the sea. To the mariner steering for the harbor of Seleucia, and from the plains to the east, even from the city of Aleppo, 70 miles away, the splendid conical peak is a guiding landmark. It is no wonder, then, that this moun- tain was looked upon as the home of the gods. Often gossamer white clouds veil its summit with the mystery befitting an abode of those divine. Again, the dark storm-clouds gather, the thunders roll, and Jupiter launches his thunderbolts of anger from his throne on high. When the lights and shadows play over the rug- ged slopes and the sun glows warm on the mountain side, the gods are at peace and all the world is gay. A FLIGHT OF BIRDS DETERMINED LOCATION OF SELEUCIA Following his religious devotions on Mount Casius, the flight of a flock of birds guided the victorious Seleucus to the founding of a Mediterranean seaport for his new kingdom. This city of Seleucia became large and flourishing, with a harbor protected by artificial breakwaters and a large inclosed basin, where the Greek and Roman galleys could load and unload directly at the wharves. From this harbor, in later years, the Apostles Barnabas and Saul sailed away to bear their gospel message to the Ro- man world. . The ancient breakwaters, the rock cita- del guarding the harbor entrance, and the outlines of the inner basin can still be traced. This same site was surveyed recently by an American syndicate as a possible location for a port and the terminus of a railway from Asia Minor to the Mediterranean, tapping the rich mineral regions of the interior. 84 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams THE WATERS OF DAPHNE High banks of moss and ferns, with the streams of water spread out in lace-like falls, give to the place a deliciously cool and re- freshing aspect. It was within sound of these waters that the ancients were accustomed to celebrate the Feast of Fertility, which eventually degenerated into such immoral revels that Rome herself was scandalized. It was quite the fashion in ancient days for a conqueror to commemorate his victories by the building of cities. In this particular Seleucus seems to have excelled. He is said to have founded, in all, nine cities named for himself, Se- leucia ; sixteen named for his father's family, Antioch ; six for his mother, Laodicea ; and three named Apamea for his Persian princess, given him as bride by Alexander. Four of these cities were in northern Syria and became the center of the great Seleucid Empire. An- tioch of Syria, beside the Orontes River, twenty miles from the sea, was the capital ; Seleucia, at the foot of a rocky headland, a short distance north of the Orontes, was Antioch's seaport; Laodicea, south of Mount Casius, a flour- ishing coast city, and for a time replacing Antioch itself as the seat of the Roman Gov- ernment ; and Apamea, on the Orontes near Hama, was the great military training camp. At Apamea, Seleu- cus placed the 500 ele- phants he had brought from India, and here, at one time, he as- sembled 30,000 mares and 300 blooded stal- lions. But by far the most famous of all these cities was Syrian An- tioch, the capital, which came to be spoken of as "Antioch the Glori- ous," "The Eye of the Orient," "The Gate of the East." And through this gate there flowed eastward the great tide of Greek art and civilization and Roman law. According to the Roman reformer and satirist, Juvenal, from Antioch also "the waters of the Orontes ^overflowed into the Tiber," and thence came superstitions and indul- gences and excesses that caused the cor- ruption of Rome. This may be true, but also it was "in Antioch that the disciples were first called Christians." AN EAGLE DIRECTED SELEUCUS TO THE SITE OF ANTIOCH While engaged in offering sacrifices in the city of Antigonia, the capital of ANTIOCH ?HE GLORIOUS 85 Seleucus' conquered rival, an eagle swooped down, caught a piece of meat from the altar, and flew away. The flight of the eagle was watched, and it was seen to settle upon Mount Silpius, at the southern edge of the plain, beside the Orontes. This was in- terpreted as an omen that the gods wished Seleucus to found his capital on the site in- dicated by the eagle's flight. Accordingly, Seleu- cus destroyed Anti- gonia and removed city and citizens across the plain to the new location. It was un- doubtedly a great as- set to have his judg- ment as to a suitable and strategic site con- firmed by signs and omens. And so Seleucus was guided to build his capital city on the ris- ing ground between the Orontes River and the high slopes of Sil- pius. This plateau is some two miles in width and extends a long distance east and west between the river and the mountains. To the north of the river a wide and fer- tile plain stretches away for miles to the range of Amanus ; the Lake of Antioch, surrounded greenest of plains, lies blue in tance. This was a strategic point for the build- ing of a capital city. The immediate en- virons furnished ample support in grain and cattle for the city's needs. Both by river and easy road there was access to the sea. Almost within sight from the Photograph from William H. Hall IN THE COINS OF ANCIENT ANTIOCH is RECORDED MUCH off THE PROUD CITY'S LEGENDARY HISTORY At the top is shown Fortuna, symbolic figure of the city,, seated on the crags of Mount Silpius, with the Orontes River, represented as a boy, swimming at her feet. In the middle is a coin of the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, who persecuted the Jews and against whom the Maccabees rose. It shows the figure of Zeus, and the inscription claims divine honors for Epiphanes. At the bottom is one of the coins of Antiochus the Great, showing the herd of Antiochus on the obverse and on the reverse side Apollo, patron god of Antioch, aim- ing an arrow into the ground (see text, page 99). by the the dis- citadel walls the pass of the "Syrian Gates" gave access to the north and west. The whole plain of the Mesopotamian Valley lay open to the east, and south- ward along the seacoast and the plain be- tween the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges opened the land of Syria and the way to Egypt. From three directions, therefore, the 86 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE O Keystone View Company YOUNG SYRIAN WOMEN OF THE TYPE THE TRAVELER MEETS IX ANTIOCH TODAY AKTIOCH THfi GLOfttOUS Photograph by Charles E. Beury A NATIVE COURIER FOR AN AMERICAN CONSUL IN SYRIA 88 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams BAB-EL-HADID, ONE OF THE LESSER GATES OF ANTIOCH • Down the side of this valley the city wall descends almost perpendicularly. whole empire centered on this point. Tt was the natural meeting place, the cross- roads of trade and government and mili- tary expeditions. Rome recognized this and made Antioch her seat of govern- ment for the Orient, and there she fitted out all of her armies for the Eastern campaigns. ANTIOCH REPRESENTED BY "FORTUNE" Modern trade has borne out the judg- ment of the ancients by maintaining the commercial importance of the near-by city of Aleppo. Thus Seleucus chose the place for his capital city whence he could easily strike north, south, or east, and so located that he prevented the union of his rivals. His was the power of "the Central Empire." On many of the coins of Antioch is stamped an allegorical design representing the city. This design is a crowned maiden seated upon the rocks, with a boy, in the at- titude of swimming, at her feet. This is the city of Antioch, on the rocky mountain of Silpius, with the river Orontes at "its feet. The figure of a maiden was the city's "Fortune," and this statue occupied one of the. most important places in the decora- tion of the capital. A CITY OF FOUR PARTS About fifteen miles to the east of Antioch the Orontes River makes a sharp bend to the west. After flow- ing across the broad, fertile plain, it is joined by the Black River, the outlet of the Lake of Antioch. The union of these two streams and the numerous smaller tributaries from the neighboring moun- tains makes a fine, broad river that flows with a rapid current almost straight west- ward to the sea. Just north of Mount Silpius there is a broad bend inclosing an island. It is possible that the island was made origi- nally by a canal cut across the bend. Seleucus built his city on the rising ground immediately south of the river. Mention is made by the geographer Strabo that the city was of four parts — the original city of Seleucus ; the city on the island built by Antiochus I ; the por- tion between the first city and the moun- ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 89 tain, built by Antiochus III, and the most beautiful portion to the east, built by Antiochus Epiphanes. During the Seleu- cid era the city covered a space four miles long by two miles wide. In addi- tion, there were populous suburbs, such as Heraclea and Daphne. The general plan adopted in building was one much admired at that time. There was one long main street, in gen- eral parallel with the river. All other streets were either parallel with this main street or at right angles to it. This "checker-board" plan was typical of Greek cities. Bridges spanned the river both to the island and to the northern bank. The points of the mountain were crowned with temples, shrines, and a citadel. The whole city was surrounded by a great wall which is said to have been seventy to eighty feet high, to have been protected by 360 towers, and to have been so broad that a team of four horses could drive abreast on the top of it. It is thought by some that this plan of Antioch, especially the great colonnaded street, was copied in the planning of other cities, such as Palmyra and Jerash. Indeed, Miiller in his "Antiquities of Antioch" contends that Antioch was an original product of Greek art, that other cities were patterned after it, and that later decorations of Antioch. were merely copies or restorations of the earlier Greek beauties by the less original Roman con- querors. A STREET OF MAGNIFICENT SPLENDOR The most magnificent splendor of Antioch was its great street. This ran straight through the city from east to west. At each end there was an im- pressive gate. The eastern gate was later known as the "Gate of St. Paul." It was still standing forty years ago, almost complete ; but now even the foundations have been removed for buildings in the modern city. The western, or Daphnean Gate, was called the "Gate of the Cheru- bim," for over this gate Titus placed the golden cherubim he had taken from the temple in Jerusalem. These two gates were about four miles apart. Between them was a grand boulevard. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead A MAP OF THE EASTERN SHORES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN Legendary history tells us that the flight of an eagle indicated to Seleucus Nicator the site for Antioch, which became the brilliant capital of the Seleucid Empire. It enjdys an un- rivaled situation on the south bank of the Orontes River, with a spur from Mount Casius at its back and fertile plains spreading north- ward beyond the river in the direction of Alexandretta. One who has visited the ruins of Jerash, east of the Jordan, or Palmyra, or the beautiful white marble street of Ephesus, can form some conception of what this glory of Antioch must have been. On each side of the street was a double row of columns. The outside aisle in each case was roofed over, furnishing a shady 90 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams SUNSET IN THE BAY OF ALEXANDR^TTA The natural outlet for the products of the wonderfully fertile valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates is not the long haul over the Bagdad Railway to Smyrna and Constantinople, but the short haul, past the city of Aleppo, to some harbor on the Mediterranean coast — to Alexandretta, 30 miles north of Antioch, or to Antioch's resuscitated seaport, ancient Seleucia. ANT1OCH THE GLORIOUS 91 walk in summer and a dry and sheltered way during the winter storms. Between the inner rows of columns was a broad highway for chariots and horsemen. It has been estimated that if these columns were the same distance from each other as those still standing in the street of Palmyra, there would have been 6,800 in all. This street was lined with magnificent public buildings, temples, shrines, and palaces of the nobles. Imagine, then, this grand highway, with its long vista of granite, marble, and porphyry columns, its covered promenade rich in statues and carvings, its marble pavements, its beautiful Grecian archi- tecture, and, terminating all, the golden decorations of the western gate blazing in the light of the setting sun. A STREET OF GAY THRONGS AND BRILLIANT PROCESSIONS Fill this street with its busy throngs of men and women : Here a religious pro- cession, the priests clad in the many- colored vestments of their office, the animal for sacrifice decked with wreaths and garlands of flowers, and the company of singers chanting the solemn proces- sional ; there a gay throng of revelers in wedding procession, escorting the bridal pair to the beautiful Nymphaeum, near the river side, a great circular, dome- covered building, rich in columns and statues, and with cool, plashing foun- tains— an institution with special accom- modations for the celebration of nuptials ; or, again, down the great street there might come some victorious general, re- turning in triumph from his foreign cam- paign— slaves, soldiers, sovereigns, all following his triumphal car. Thus came the great Caesar himself, while the city resounded again and again to cries of loyalty and adoration. Up and down this street have passed not only the stately religious procession, the happy bridal party, the triumphant conqueror, and the magnificent array of the glorious king, but also there has rushed the mob, wild with fury and drunk with the passion of plunder and massacre. O great street of Antioch, what scenes of splendor, pleasure, and of horror have been enacted on those marble pavements from gate to gate, and have woven their web in and out among that forest of columns! Many other streets crossed the great street, always at right angles, and at every intersection arches were erected, called "tetrapyli." About the middle of the city another broad street, also colonnaded, extended from the river to the mountain. In this street, near the river, was located the Nymphaeum, mentioned previously, and where it crossed the great street was created the ''Omphalos." This altar was the center of the city and was devised in imitation of that at Delphi, which had been erected by the ancient Greeks, supposing Delphi to be the center of the world. Here was a sitting statue of Apollo, the patron god of the Seleucids. Outside the eastern gate for a distance of two miles King Herod of the Jews built a continuation of the great street. Herod's street also had rows of col- umns and was paved with marble. It traversed the portion of the city known as Herod's Suburb. From the western or Daphne Gate, a great highway extended for some six or eight miles through the suburb of Hera- clea to the noted Grove of Daphne. This road skirted the low foothills. At fre- quent intervals there were fountains, and on both sides were the magnificent villas of the nobility of Antioch. ANTIOCH HAD ITS GAY WHITE WAY "At night the streets were brilliantly illumined by lights rivaling the light of clay. This was one of the splendors of the city. The Antiochseans turned night into day, not looking for security, but pleasure. Night became a part of day, and the most beautiful part. Especially were the baths and the approaches thereto illumined." From this description one might imagine himself reading of our twentieth century Gay White Way, with its myriad electric lights. An abundance of splendid water con- tributed to the joy and pleasures of the Seleucid capital. Not only was there the river Orontes, but great aqueducts brought a copious supply of clear, pure water from the mountains. Two large aqueducts entered the city from the east 92 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Keystone View Company THE HARBOR OF BEIRUT, ONE OF THE SYRIAN TORTS WHICH HAS CAPTURED THE COMMERCE ONCE CONTROLLED BY SELEUCIA Lying 170 miles south of Antioch, Beirut is connected by rail with Aleppo, Damascus, and Tripoli. It is the seat of the Syrian Protestant College, an undenominational American institution with faculties of arts and medicine, pharmacy and commerce, attended by more than 1,000 students. AXTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 93 and a greater number from the west, bringing the waters of Daphne to the gardens, fountains, and baths of the city. Antioch was everywhere beautified with statues in marble and bronze. It was the delight of the great who visited the place to erect a statue, to dedicate a shrine, to build an aqueduct, or present a bath. It is said that there were so many public buildings in the city that the poorer people had to live outside the walls or in one of the suburbs. The size of the city was 30 by 36 stadia, equal to 3^2 by 4 miles. St. Chrysostom gives the population as 200,000, which number did not include boys, girls, or slaves. It is, therefore, safe to say that Antioch, with its immediate suburbs, was a city of half a million people. "THE MOST DELIGHTFUL PLACE OF THE WHOLE EARTH" Passing through the city gate at the western end of the great street, one fol- lows the road through the suburb of Heraclea. This road follows the turn- ings of the foothills. High on the left rise the rugged mountains. Sloping away on the right are green fields, beyond which winds the Orontes. This road was once lined with beautiful gardens sur- rounding splendid villas, and kept fresh and flowering by abundant streams of water from the neighboring hills. At fre- quent intervals there were bubbling foun- tains, inviting the thirsty to refresh them- selves, and wayside shrines, where the weary could rest and the devout could pay their devotions. Heraclea itself must have been a beau- tiful suburb, located on rising ground, well supplied with water, and possessing a splendid view of the river valley and the surrounding mountains. One did not stop at Heraclea long, however, but has- tened on through rich gardens, past fine houses and villas, to the wonderful Val- ley of Daphne. This valley is about six miles from Antioch. Ancient writers, praising its beauty, called it "the most delightful place of the whole earth," "the pleasant- est corner in the earth," and "the garden of Venus and the graces." A narrow valley, descending between two high, rocky mountains, broadens out into a fine plateau, at a point where beautiful streams of clear, cold water break forth from the rocks. These fall in a series of cascades into the gorge below, where they unite into a torrent rushing away to the Orontes. In the floor of this valley are numerous little wooded islands, with green and grassy shores. High banks of moss and ferns, with the streams of water spread out in lace-like falls, give to the place a deliciously cool and refreshing aspect. In former days the mountain sides were covered with forests, the plateau was adorned with groves of cypress, and the narrow valley was green with clumps of laurel. The Valley of Daphne is beautiful to- day in its abundance of water and its wild tangle of moss and fern and over- running vines. But "the pleasantest cor- ner in the earth" it must have been when it was all in the order of a great wild garden, graced with beautiful temples, peopled with nymphs and dryads, and veiled in the poetic mystery of Greek re- ligious fancy. There has been some dispute as to the location of Daphne ; but to one who has visited the place there can be no doubt. The beauties of the valley 'itself are un- rivaled, and the ruins on every ,hand would seem to mark the place beyond question. At the very fountain head are the ruins of some great building, perhaps the tem- ple of Apollo. From this point a number of aqueducts lead away in the direction of Antioch. The whole plateau is strewn with broken pieces of marble richly carved; granite columns are everywhere, project- ing from the fields or built into the gar- den walls. The peasants' houses are adorned with marble scrolls, ancient key- stones, or broken bits of decoration from ancient palaces. One cannot but specu- late as to what lies buried a few feet under the soil. But the heathen temples were destroyed with fire in Christian times, and terrible earthquakes long ago reduced the magnificent buildings to heaps of ruins. What a show-place Daphne must have been in its prime ! Apollo was the brother of Diana, the goddess of the chase, who 94 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE MARKET-PLACE OF MODERN ANTIOCII Although it played a major role in the early history of Christianity and it was here that "the disciples were first called Christians," Mohammedanism is now the dominant faith of this region, as the minaret overlooking the market suggests. Photographs by Stephen Van R. Trowbridge HILLSIDES NEAR ANTIOCH TERRACED FOR THE CULTIVATION OF MULBERRY TREES ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS RUINS OF A CHURCH ON "jABEL SIMAN," PROBABLY THE) BIRTHPLACE OF THE) ORDER OF PILLAR SAINTS Note the outline of Mount Casius in the background. Photographs by Maynard Owen Williams THE) HARBOR OF SELEUCIA, SHOWING THE ANCIENT BREAKWATER, NOW BURIED IN SAND From this harbor Barnabas and Saul set sail on their missionary journeys. The city was of great importance in the struggle between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. It stood on the rocks overlooking the sea, four miles north of the mouth of the Orontes. 06 5 o o* 2 «.<§„, u ^x 2 °~ y c 5'£ rt Cy Q 'S W C IS « *c» " 6'0 o 97 ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 99 used to be attended by a bevy of beauti- ful maidens. This goddess and her maids loved the mountain valleys, the wooded hillsides, the springs and streams. APOLLO'S ADVENTURE} WITH THE NYMPH DAPHNE: Apollo, happening one day to be in this beautiful valley, presumably to pay a visit to his huntress sister, chanced to spy the beautiful nymph Daphne. She espied Apollo at the same instant and set off in a wild flight down the valley. Of course, Apollo followed hard. She prayed to her mother, Earth, for protec- tion, with the result that she was changed at once into a laurel. Imagine being in pursuit of a beautiful maiden only to have one's eager arms embrace the cruel branches of a bush ! The laurel was ever after sacred to Apollo, and with its leaves he crowned the victors in the games. The valley where this incident occurred was named Daphne in honor of the nymph and was held sacred to Apollo and Diana. When the god started in pursuit of Daphne he was so eager that he carelessly threw down the handful of arrows which he carried. From one of these arrows the golden point was broken and re- mained hidden in the earth until the time of Seleucus Nicator. By the pawing of the conqueror's horse this golden arrow- head was uncovered. What finally became of this prize is not recorded ; but proof of the incident is deduced on certain coins of Antioch showing Apollo aiming an arrow into the earth. At any rate, this incident caused Seleucus to build a magnificent temple to Apollo on this spot. Daphne henceforth became such a center of worship and pleasure that Antioch was at times re- ferred to as "Antioch near Daphne." This temple of Apollo, embowered in a cypress grove, was built with splendid columns at both front and back and with numerous columns inside. Its walls and pavements were of beautifully colored marble and the roof and ceiling were of cedar; but the chief feature of the tem- ple was the colossal statue of Apollo, made of wood and marble. All the ex- posed parts of the body were of gleaming white, but the portions covered by the robe were of wood. At the side of the statue hung a cithera, rich with gold and gems, which the god touched with the fingers of one hand, while the half-open lips seemed to breathe forth a song. The other hand held a golden saucer, from which Apollo was about to drink or to pour forth a libation to Mother Earth. The whole statue was richly decorated and was considered one of the finest works of art in this part of the world. Just when the statue was completed is not known, but certainly not later than the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, as it appears on his coins. It was finally de- stroyed by fire in the reign of the Em- peror Julian. MANY EXCESSES MARKED THE FESTIVITIES AT DAPHNE It would be difficult indeed to present an adequate account of the worship, the abuses and the excesses of this shrine of Daphne. Truly the place, in its natural surroundings and in its elaborate decora- tions, was beautiful beyond description. The mountain slopes were covered with groves of cypress ; the valley was green with clumps of laurel bushes; the banks were soft with grass and bright with flowers. The valley was sheltered from the winter storms, yet in the spring and summer soft breezes tempered the warmer air ; and above all there was t(ie water, splashing in fountains, foaming in picturesque cascades, rushing through a narrow gorge, quietly slipping by some little island, and always rilling the air with a delightful coolness. Add to this background of nature every fascination that the art and ingenuity of man could devise and Daphne became a place alluring, delightful, voluptuous. But there was more than nature and art; there was also life. The temples and groves were peopled, not with gods, goddesses, and nymphs, for they were represented in statues of gold and marble, but with men and women, priests and priestesses, rendering this most beautiful spot a scene of vital activity. It is difficult for us to imagine the splendor of the service in an ancient heathen temple. At Daphne, the flaming altar, the smoking censer, the ministering priests in gaily-colored robes of symbolic 100 T!IK NATIONAL GKOC.RAPHIC A1AC.AZ1NK Photograph by Ellsworth Huntington SYRIAN WOMEN GRINDING WHEAT The natives of the plains and hills in the vicinity of Antioch still pursue their daily tasks of the household in the same primitive ways which they practiced in the time of Christ. meaning, the chanting of the service, and the religious procession, wreathed and garlanded with leaves and flowers, had all been brought to the highest state of per- fection. ROMAN SOLDIERS CORRUPTED IN THE GROVES OF DAPHNE But there was more than the stately temple service that enticed worshippers to Daphne. There were the celebrations of the feasts, especially the great feast of the return of the year, when nature everywhere was bursting into life— the Feast of Fertility, poetic in conception, but when left free from the law of moral obligation degenerating into an immoral revel and debauch. The very nature of Daphne, the very suggestion of the air, the very murmur of the brooks, all invited one to cast chastity to the winds and, under the name of religious worship, to indulge every passion. It was a true following of the tradition of Apollo and Daphne. In the time of the Antonines there were many complaints that Roman sol- diers and officers were being weakened by the pleasures of Daphne, and that Roman customs were first corrupted "when the Syrian Orontes emptied its filth into the Roman- Tiber." But the very extreme of wickedness at Antioch seems to have reacted for its reformation. Christianity spread rapidly in the city, and when the "apostate" emperor, Julian, came to sacrifice at Daphne and to try to revive the ancient rites, instead of the grand procession and the abundance of victims for the altar, a single priest came, bringing a goose for the offering. A CITY OF DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES Typhon, the terrible mythological dragon who was so fiercely at war with the god Zeus, is reported to have been buried in the mountains around Antioch after hav- ing been struck down by a thunderbolt. The old name of the river Orontes is ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 101 Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams GREAT, CREAKING WOODEN WHEELS LIFT THE WATERS OF THE ORONTES TO THE IRRIGATION DITCHES, MAKING FERTILE THE ADJACENT PLAINS Many luxuriant gardens still surround the city of Antioch, but the beauty of its once unrivaled suburban villas is gone forever. said to have been Typhon. The struggles and twistings of this monster under the mountains were held to be the cause of numerous earthquakes along the Orontes Valley. However fanciful this explanation' may be, the fact remains that time and again the whole region has been devastated by fearful earthquakes. One ancient writer says the foundations of the earth were twisted, and that great cracks were opened in the earth and people were swallowed up alive. Ten earthquakes have been enumerated which occurred between 150 B. C. and the sixth century A. D. Since that date there have been many more, and even at the present time frequent tremors are felt along the Orontes Valley. The two most destructive earthquakes occurred in the reigns of Trajan and Justinian. In the former it is said that even the people on Mount Casius trem- bled and the fountains and rivers under- went great changes. In the latter there was great loss of life. Large crowds of people had gathered in the city to cele- brate the Feast of the Transfiguration. At this time it is said that the very earth seemed to bubble and rise and fires broke out all over the city. ONE EARTHQUAKE COST ANTIOCH 250,000 LIVES The loss of life from falling walls and flames is reported at 250,000. This num- ber would seem almost incredible were it not for a similar appalling loss of life at Messina in recent years. Besides the earthquakes, other misfor- tunes befell the city. The graphic ac- count given by Gibbon of the earth- quakes, fires, and plagues that from time to time devastated the Roman Empire might well be localized in Antioch. Be- sides these, there were the vicissitudes of war, plunder, and massacre that fre- quently visited the city. After each calamity Antioch was re- built, but after the great destruction by the earthquake in Justinian's reign it 102 THK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Maynard Owen Williams RUINS OF JERASH, ONCE ONE OF THE WEALTHIEST AND MOST FLOURISHING CITIES OF PALESTINE, WHOSE COLONNADED STREET IS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN COPIED FROM THAT OF ANTIOCH Situated among the mountains of Gilead, 20 miles east of the Jordan, Jerash once had a "naumachia" as big as the Yale Bowl, in which miniature ships fought naval battles for the delight of amusement seekers. Despite the ravages of time and of earthquakes and the depredations of a colony of Circassians which now inhabits the site and finds the ruins of temple, theater, and palace an inexhaustible quarry from which to take material for modern houses, more than 230 columns still stand as monuments to a glorious past. never again arose to its former beauty or importance. In the House of Seleucus there are three names that are especially known to readers of history — Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the dynasty ; Antiochus III, sometimes called "The Great" ; and An- tiochus Epiphanes, best known, probably, for his persecution of the Jews and their rebellion under the Maccabees. Seleucus Nicator extended his power until he ruled over practically the whole of Alexander's empire with the exception of Egypt. He met his death by assassina- tion, when journeying to his old home in Macedonia. He was really the greatest of all the kings of Syria, both as a soldier and as an administrator. But Antiochus III, who ruled about 223 B. C., bore the title of "Great." The latter was a combination of daring ability, personal valor, and inexcusable indecision. A happy combination of cir- cumstances extended his empire to the Far East, over all Asia Minor, Greece, and Macedonia. But there he encoun- tered the power of Rome. Hannibal ap- peared as his friend, seeing in Antiochus an opportunity of avenging himself on Rome. But the Scipios were completely victorious and Asia Minor was forever lost to Antioch. ANTIOCHUS IV PROCLAIMED HIMSELF A DIVINITY Antiochus IV, or Epiphanes, came to the throne in 175 B. C. with a Roman training. He was a genius, a profligate, and a spendthrift. Under him the city of Antioch was rebuilt, beautified, and adorned. Olympian games were intro- duced on a most extensive scale. A whole month was given to sports and feasts. To carry out all of his extrava- ANTIOCH THE GLORIOUS 103 gant ideas, money in great sums was necessary. He therefore proclaimed him- self to be god manifest in the flesh, iden- tifying himself with Zeus. Then he pro- ceeded to strip the temples of Syria and Palestine of their wealth. In his en- deavors to despoil the temple in Jerusa- lem and to force the Greek civilization on the Jews, he aroused the fierce resist- ance of the famous Maccabee family. WILD SCENES IN ANTIOCH'S STREETS During the reign of Epiphanes no capital city ever saw such scenes as he enacted in the streets of Antioch. What- ever wild scheme of debauch or adven- ture could be suggested, this brilliant but mad king indulged in. Disguised as a common ruffian, he, with a group of boon companions, would commit every con- ceivable act of license in the gay thor- oughfares of the city. Yet Antiochus IV was an ardent patron of science, literature, and art. Exten- sive geographical explorations were car- ried on along the Persian coast ; schools of poetry and oratory were encouraged ; the finest specimens of architectural art and the most beautiful^ sculptures were erected in his magnificent capital. He ended his life in a campaign against the Armenians, dying from a most noisome disease, a graphic account of which is given in the Book of the Maccabees. THE LAST DAYS OF THE KINGDOM OF ANTIOCH The last half century of the Kingdom of Antioch trails off into a story of petty jealousies between rival claimants for the throne, until all is swallowed up in the conquests of Pompey. Then, under Roman rule, Antioch enters upon its most glorious period of history. Rome, of course, was the center of all magnificence and power. The city of Alexandria, in Egypt, was reckoned sec- ond in size and wealth. Antioch was considered the third city of the Empire, and hence of the world. But when one reads of this splendid city, the gateway of the East, the starting point of so many important military expeditions, the resi- dence of so many 'scholars, generals, and emperors, he cannot but question whether Antioch were not merely the third city in the world, but almost the rival of Rome itself. The city was finally lost to the Romans when it was captured by the Saracens, in 635. Arabic historians praise the city for its walls, its fine residences, and the number of its people ; but they make no mention of its public buildings, which doubtless had been thrown down by the numerous earthquakes and had fallen into decay through the ravages of time. The Crusaders captured the city in 1098 and held it as the capital of north- ern Syria until 1268, when it was cap- tured by the Sultan of Egypt. In 1832 it was taken by Ibraham Pasha, but re- stored to Turkish rule at the conclusion of peace. ANTIOCH'S GLORY FADED WITH THE AR- RIVAL OF THE PERSIANS However, the glory of Antioch and its historical importance seem to have passed away when it was sacked by the Persians under Chosroes, in 538. At that time fire, plunder, and massacre followed one another. Many of the statues and beauti- ful marbles, together with large treasures of gold and silver and great companies of citizens, were carried away to the new Persian Antioch, near Ctesiphon. There is a modern city of considerable importance. It occupies the site of the ancient city and is largely built from the old ruins. The splendid walls and gate- ways of the old city, fine specimens of architectural construction, are rapidly disappearing for building stone. A large industry in the digging of lico- rice root is here carried on and the prod- uct is chiefly exported to America. Great creaking, wooden wheels lift the water of the Orontes to the level of irrigation ditches. _ ' Luxuriant gardens still surround the city and roads radiate from the great bridge in all directions. But Time's hand has fallen heavily on the once proud city and only the student of history, basing his view as much on his reading as on the visible reminders of a departed magnificence, can succeed in recalling the gay, glad days when "Antioch the Glorious" was the brilliantly jeweled "Crown of the East." THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Paul Thompson THE STOCK EXCHANGE BUILDING, NEW YORK I NEAR THIS SITE, IN I7Q2, A GROUP OF BROKERS MET UNDER A BUTTONWOOD TREE AND ORGANIZED THE "NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE" The Empire State wr.s originally called New Netherlands by its Dutch settlers, but in 1664, when it was captured by the English, its name was changed to New York, in honor of the brother of King Charles II (see text, page 106). THK ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES BY FREDERICK W. LAWRENCE TO ALL Americans the origin of the names of our States should prove an interesting subject, and from it no. small amount of history and geography is to be learned. It is, how- ever, a more complicated subject to trace than the origin of the nomenclature of European States, which, for the most part, bear names derived simply from the ancient tribes by which they were for- merly inhabited. For example, England, Scotland, Hun- gary, Belgium, France, and Switzerland are names that come down to us more or less directly from the earlier tribal in- habitants of these countries. The State names of the United States in many cases reflect the varied nation- alities which first explored or colonized these States. Many bear Indian names, descriptive of some natural feature of the region or taken from some tribe living in that section, and we find a few named for European sovereigns and other individuals, while one bears the name of a fabled island of romance and another is named after a holy day. Still others bear names that do not fall into any particular class, but which must be treated individually. Hence we find that, although the ma- jority of our States have names of In- dian origin, there are sufficient of Eng- lish, French, and Spanish source to mark the limits of the exploration and coloni- zation of those nations. The Indian names are typical of America, and al- though the red man has dwindled, both in numbers and power, his sonorous and euphonious place-names confront us on every hand. Strong ties bound our earlier settlers to their mother countries, and from them were derived most of the early geograph- ical names. While we cannot but admit that this may have shown a commendable love of the mother land, as evinced by a laudable desire to spread her place-names into the wilderness, it is also manifest that this tendency was in many cases in- dicative of a paucity of imagination and a poor sense of the fitness of names. The practice resulted in giving us many inap- propriate place-names ; for names such as New York, Maryland, and New Hamp- shire in themselves convey nothing to our minds. On the other hand, Ken- tucky, Massachusetts, and Alabama, al- though we may not be familiar with their exact meaning, at least speak to us of an earlier and sterner day, when the red man roamed this land and the settler cleared his farm and built his home with the ever-present menace of an Indian at- tack in view. Indian names, when translated, gener- ally tell of some natural feature of the region — of a swiftly flowing river, a vast lake, a mighty mountain — always some- thing to which the Indian was bound by every tie. INDIAN HAD NO ALPHABET TO RECORD HIS NAMES Indian names have come to us in vari- ous and changed forms, for the Indian had no alphabet, and the white man had to represent his place-names phonetically as best he could; hence the wide diver- gence in the spelling of many Indian names. But, even in their changed forms, they are always flowing and beautiful in sound, as witness such names as Penob- scot, Housatonic, Susquehanna, Kana- wha, Catawba, and Tacoma. No names brought in from a foreign land can equal these for beauty and euphony, nor will any others serve to commemorate the vanishing race which once occupied our country. Of our 48 States, we find that 25 bear names of Indian origin, while 12 are English, six Spanish, three French, and two bear names that must be considered, from a historical standpoint, American. Considering the States with English names first, the origin of most of these will be familiar to us from our studies in American colonial history. The first of these is New Hampshire, the original territory of which was conveyed by a patent of the Plymouth Company to John 105 10G THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by U. S. Air Service AN AIRPLANE VIEW OF NEW YORK'S SKYSCRAPERS AND BATTERY PARK Mason in 1629 and named by him for the English county of Hampshire. RHODE ISLAND OWES ITS NAME TO A DUTCH NAVIGATOR When the Dutch navigator Adrian Block sailed into Narragansett Bay, about 1614, he encountered an island of fiery aspect, due to the red clay in some portions of its shores. He called it Roode Eylandt (Red Island), and the surrounding country received its name from that of the island. The English settlers, who, with Roger Williams at their head, received a charter for this re- gion from the English Crown in 1644, Anglicized the name, making it Rhode Island. There is a theory, also, that our smallest State was named after the Island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean, but it is difficult to substantiate this claim, as the two localities in no way re- semble one another. The Empire State, New York, as is well known, was originally called New Netherlands, while the city was known as New Amsterdam. But when the colony was taken over by the English, in 1664, the names of both were changed to New York, not, as might be supposed, after the city of York, England, but in honor of Charles IPs brother, the Duke cf York, afterward James II of England, to whom the grant was made. The duke, in turn, transferred the southern portion of his grant to Sir George Carteret, who settled there and named the country after the Channel Isle of Jersey, which place he had bravely de- fended against the Parliamentary forces in the English civil war. PENNSYLVANIA IS THE ONLY STATE BEARING ITS FOUNDER'S NAME In the southern portion of New Jersey and in Delaware the Swedes made their only American settlement, which they called New Sweden, but the colony was short-lived and only a few town-names THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 107 Photograph by U. S. Air Service THE WATERFRONT OF THE WORLD'S LARGEST CITY, AS SEEN FROM THE AIR: STEAMSHIP PIERS OF NEW YORK remain today to remind us of their oc- cupation. Charles II of England, the "Merry Monarch," spent so much of his coun- try's funds on pleasure that state debts often remained unpaid. One of these was for salary to one Sir William Penn, one of the lords of the admiralty, who, on his death, bequeathed the claim, which amounted to some £16.000, to his son, William Penn, a Quaker. The latter agreed to accept a land grant from the crown in exchange for the debt. The land was described in the royal grant as "a tract of land in America, lying north of Maryland, on the east bounded by the Delaware River, on the west limited as Maryland, and to the northward to ex- tend as far as plantable." Had this last boundary been strictly adhered to, Penn- sylvania would indeed be the largest State in the Union. Penn wanted to call this land "Sylva- nia" on account of its vast forests, but the king insisted that the founder's name be incorporated in that of the colony, and thus it is as Pennsylvania, literally "Penn's woods," that the Keystone State is known to us today. It is the only State named for its founder. Our second smallest State, Delaware, bears the name of Lord de la Warr, first governor and captain-general of Vir- ginia, who in 1630 went on an exploring expedition in the bay and river after which the State is named. In this connection it is interesting to note that the Leni-Lenape tribe of In- dians were also called Delawares, after the river valley which they inhabited, this being a reversal of the custom of naming a State after an Indian tribe. The first English Roman Catholic set- tlement in America was made in Mary- 108 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Kenneth D. Smith EAGLE LAKE AND MOUNT LAFAYETTE, WHITE MOUNTAINS, NEW HAMPSHIRE New Hampshire was named for a county in England. Its nickname is "The Granite State." THK ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 109 Photograph by U. S. Air Service A RAILROAD ROUNDHOUSE: PRESENTS A STRANGELY SYMMETRICAL PICTURE FROM THE AIR: PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA As the home of Independence Hall and the birthplace of the Declaration of Independence, the Keystone State, whose name means "Perm's Woods," has chosen "Virtue, Liberty, and Independence" for its motto. land, in 1634, and this colony, by the way, was the first to extend religious toleration to all. It was named after the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria, who was the daughter of Henry of Navarre and was of the Roman Catholic faith. LOYALTY OF SETTLERS TO THE BRITISH CROWN REFLECTED IN STATE NAMES ^ The strong tendency of the earlier English settlers to perpetuate English royal names in their settlements is in- dicative of their loyalty to the crown and is further illustrated in the names of the Vireinias, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The first of these was named by Sir Walter Raleigh for Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen, who was on the throne of Eng- land when the first settlements were at- tempted, in 1585. It is interesting t3 note that Virginia is the only State whose name appears in literature associated with the royal title. Spenser dedicated his "Faerie Queene" to "Elizabeth, by the grace of God, Queene of England, France and Ireland and of Virginia." When the State of West Virginia was formed, in 1863, it was first proposed to call it "Kanawha," after one of its rivers, and much regret has been voiced that this fine old Indian name was not adopted. There has been some confusion as to which King Charles the Carolinas were mined for. In 1560 Jean Ribault, a French explorer, named this region after Charles IX of France. The name, how- IIO THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 111 ever, did not come into general use and for a time disappeared. About 1630 the country was referred to as Carolina in some English state papers, and it was considered to have been so named after Charles I of England, but it was not until 1663 that the name Carolina was defi- nitely applied to this section by the lords proprietor, who had received a grant to the land from Charles II and who named the country in his honor. Georgia was named by and for King George II of England, and the colony was referred to under this name in the charter which that monarch granted to General Oglethorpe, the founder, in 1732. THREE OF OUR STATES HAVE FRENCH * NAMES Of the three States bearing French names, the origin of one is doubtful. This small number is out of proportion to the extent of French explorations, evi- dence of which can be gained from the trail of French place-names from the mouth of the St. Lawrence, through Montreal, Quebec, and the Great Lakes, Detroit, Sault Ste. Marie and Duluth, down the Mississippi Valley, past Des Moines and St. Louis to New Orleans. The French made some great discov- eries— the St. Lawrence, some of the Great Lakes, and Lake Champlain, for instance. They were fearless adven- turers : no land was too wild to explore, no river too swift to cross or too danger- ous to navigate, no mountains too high to ascend. But the fact remains that, in spite oi all these accomplishments, they were not vigorous colonists. Vermont was first explored by Samuel de Champlain in 1609 and was so named by him after its Green Mountains (Vert Mont), which are the dominating natural feature of the State. It is altogether fitting that the name of this intrepid ex- plorer should be perpetuated in that of the largest fresh-water lake in the United States (aside from the Great Lakes), which forms the greater part of the west- ern boundary of the Green Mountain State. The generally accepted version of the origin of the name of Maine is that it was so called by some early French ex- plorers after the French province of that name, wherein was located the private estate of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I of England. There is another meaning ascribed to the name, fairly well supported by au- thorities. According to this version, the fishermen on the islands along the coast of Maine always referred to that region as the "Mayn land," and in support of this theory we find the colony referred to in a grant of Charles I to Sir Fer- nando Gorges in 1639 as "the province or county of Mayne." The third State name of French origin is that of Louisiana, so called in honor of Louis XIV. The name was first applied in 1683 by the daring French explorer, La Salle, who employed it to indicate the vast territory watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries. THE SIX STATES WITH SPANISH NAMES Permanent Spanish settlements within the present boundaries of the United States were made earlier than those of any other country and they were numer- ous. As a result, we have six States bearing names of Spanish origin, and in them and their neighbors we find a large number of towns and counties from this tongue. The course of the early Spanish ex- plorers can be traced from Florida with such place-names as St. Augustine (an Anglicized form of the Spanish name), Hernando and Fernandina; through Texas with Corpus Christi, San Antonio, and El Paso; New Mexico with Santa Fe, Las Vegas, and Albuquerque; Ari- zona with San Carlos and many smaller Spanish-named towns, to California, with San Francisco, Sacramento, and Los Angeles and a host of "Sans" running the whole list of saints' names from An- selmo to Rafael. In southern Colorado, Nevada, and western Utah, also, traces of Spanish exploration and settlement can be gleaned from the place-names. The first State to bear a Spanish name was Florida, which was discovered by Ponce de Leon on Easter Sunday, 1512. Two theories exist regarding the origin of the name. One refers to the Spanish term, Pascua Florida (Easter Sunday — 112 THE NATION AT. GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE SUGAR BEETS OF CALIFORNIA ARE SUPPLEMENTING THE CANE FIELDS OF CUBA AND LOUISIANA IN ABATING THE WORLD'S SUGAR SHORTAGE The name '"California" originally appeared in a Spanish romance. It was supposed to be an island of fabulous wealth. The followers of Cortez applied it to Lower California, and later it spread to the present State. The choice of this name, suggesting a place of gold and precious stones, seemed almost prophetic. THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 113 Photograph by Eugene S. Jones OWLSHEAD: ROCKLAND, MAINE Maine, the Pine Tree State, is one of the three Commonwealths of the Union whose name is supposed to be of French origin. literally, "Feast of the Flowers''), hav- ing reference to the flowers with which the churches in Spain are decorated on that day. In view of the day on which the discovery was made, this is probably the correct explanation of the origin. The second theory is that Ponce de Leon simply used the word "Florida," meaning "flowery," from the aspect of the country. The other Spanish-named States lie in the Far West. Anv one who has seen the snow-clad peaks of Nevada can well ap- preciate the descriptive word, "Snowy." While not explored or colonized by Spaniards, Montana bears a Spanish (some say, Latin) name. This large State's giant ranges and Cordilleras make its name, which means "Mountainous," singularly appropriate. Colorado was probably named from the river, although only its tributaries flow through the State. The word is Spanish for "red" in the sense of 114 115 110 T1IK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by the Photo Craft Shop THE GARDEN OF THE GODS, COLORADO SPRINGS: COLORADO 'The Garden of the Gods is now a part of the Colorado Springs park system, having been transferred on Christmas Day, 1909, by the children of the late Charles Elliott Perkins, with the stipulation that the tract be forever kept open and free to the public. The red-rock formation of this region recalls the fact that the word "Colorado" means "red" in Spanish. THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 117 Photograph from N. II. Darton THE: GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO Joaquin Miller, the poet, said of this scene: "Looking down more than half a mile into this i5-by-2i8-mile paint pot. ! continually ask, 'Is any fifty miles of Mother Earth that I have known as fearful, as full of glon% as full of God?'" 118 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Detroit Publishing Company VIRGINIA'S FAMOUS NATURAL BRIDGE: Known both as the "Old Dominion" and as the "Mother of Presidents," Virginia was chris- tened by Sir Walter Raleigh in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen (see page 109). THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 119 "ruddy," and may come from the color of the stream at some places. Then, again, it is possible that the State was named from the red earth of some re- gions which were settled in the early days. The name of California was originally given by some of the followers of Cortez, the conqueror of Aztec Mexico, to what is now known as Lower California, whence the name spread to the present State. The imagination of Cortez's men had been fired by the reading of an old Spanish romance of chivalry called "Las Sergas de Esplandian," in which was de- scribed a fabled island called California, where gold and precious stones in abun- dance were found, and they gave this name to the new land which they had discovered. It is strange that a name accidentally given should later prove so descriptive. Some years later Sir Francis Drake, the daring English navigator, sailed into San Francisco Bay and called the region "New Albion" ; but the name did not "take." As to Oregon, the best information obtainable regarding the origin of its name is of varied nature and several theories are equally well supported. The first recognized theory is that the name was taken from that of a species of wild sage called "origanum," which grows in profusion on the coast of the State. The second is to the effect that the name is derived from the Spanish word "Ore- gones," meaning "Big-eared Men," sup- posed to have been given to the natives by a Jesuit priest who settled in that country in the early days. Joaquin Miller, "The Poet of the Sier- ras," said that the name came from the Spanish "Aura Agua," meaning "Gently Trailing Waters/' It is on the strength of these two latter theories that this name is included with those of Spanish origin. Several other more obscure theories ex- ist, but neither these nor the three men- tioned above can be substantiated. AMERICAN NAMES FOR ONLY TWO STATES Two States may be said to have Amer- ican names. The first is Washington, named for the Father of his Country, and the second Indiana, so called on ac- count of the purchase and subsequent settlement by various Indian tribes of large tracts of land north of the Ohio River and within the present boundaries of the State. INDIAN NAMES DERIVED FROM SEVERAL TONGUES When we review Indian State names, we must remember that there was no one Indian tongue. Instead, there were several separate and distinct languages, and each of these was divided into many dialects. Hence the wide variance in Indian names in different sections of the country. For instance, note the wide difference between Penobscot and Ken- nebec in Maine and Chattahoochee and Apalachicola in Florida. Then, again, Mount Katahdin, in Maine, and the Kit- tatinny Range, in New Jersey, are from the same Algonquin tongue, but repre- sent the Abenaki and Leni-Lenape, or Delaware, forms of the word for "Great Peak." Most, if not all, of these Indian terms have suffered corruption at the hands of the white man, in some cases to such an extent that all connection with the origi- nal word seems to be lost ; but the names as they remain still retain their beautiful and sonorous sound. From the translation of Indian names we gain an idea of the practical mind of the Indian. He lived in the open, close to nature ; he hunted and fished through- out his whole life, and his constant con- tact with the forests and streams, hills and plains, shows in his system of no- menclature, for his place-names are most descriptive and invariably based on some natural feature of the country. The Indian never took names from other lands than his, and did not honor individuals with geographical names, as does the white man. He was seldom sat- isfied with short descriptive names, such as could be translated into "green hill" or "swift river," but was partial to poly- syllabic names, which, when translated, had such meanings as "honey water of many coves" or "winding river of many fish." Such translations of Indian names remain with us, although the original words may have been shortened or cor- rupted by the white man. 120 ,v. [21 122 £ g C e- o ^ « •r. ^- 55 g C ^ O M ~ o 2 O 123 124 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Putnam & Valentine THE HIGHWAY AROUND LAKE) TAIIOE I CALIFORNIA Sir Francis Drake, the English navigator, named California "New Albion," in honor of England, but the name did not "take." The coined name "California," taken from the Spanish romance, "Las Sergas de Esplandian," proved to be more appropriate. THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 125 Photograph by Putnam & Valentine ALONG THE COLUMP.TA RIVER. OREGON, ONE OF THE MOST MAJESTIC HIGHWAYS IN THE WORLD Known both as the Beaver and the Sunset State, the origin of the name Oregon is traced to several sources, some authorities maintaining that it is derived from the nam« of a species of wild sa^e which grows here in profusion, while others attribute it to a Jesuit priest, who gave the name "Oregones" (Big-eared Men) to the Indians living "where rolls the Oregon." The first State to bear an Indian name was Massachusetts, which was named for the bay — indeed, until 1780 the State bore its colonial name of "Massachusetts Bay" and has been nicknamed "Old Bay State." The word means "At or Near the Great Hills" and probably has refer- ence to the heights of land around Bos- ton, seen from the bay when approaching that city. CONNECTICUT WAS ORIGINALLY OUONOKTACUT The transition from Quonoktacut to Connecticut is an example of how Indian names suffered corruption at the hands of the white man. The word means "River Whose Water Is Driven in Waves by Tides or Winds," a typically long and descriptive title and taken from the principal river of the State, which was probably so named from the aspect near its mouth. "On Long River" and "Long River Without End" are other meanings which have been ascribed to this word. In 1541 Hernando de Soto, the Span- ish discoverer of the Mississippi, gave battle to a tribe of Indians at a place called Alibamo, on the Yazoo River, in Mississippi. This place was the fortress of a brave tribe called the Alibamons or Alabamas, who, after this battle mi- grated eastward to the shores of a river to which they gave their name and which in turn gave the State of Alabama its name. Some authorities give this word the meaning of "Here We Rest" ; but this cannot be substantiated, the more so be- e S 3 O fcfl •4-" V 126 127 128 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Eugene S. Jones THE) OLD OAKEN BUCKET : MASSACHUSETTS On Pond Street, in the quaint old village of Greenbush, on the South Shore of the Old Bay State, where Walnut Tree Hill slopes into the plain, is the "Old Oaken Bucket" home- stead. The "well," the "deep-tangled wildwood," the mill," and the "brook" are all there, but the original bucket is in the Boston Museum. THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 129 cause the tribe of this name showed con- siderable proclivities for wandering. Our greatest river, the Mississippi, gives name to one of our Southern States. The Indian word means "Gathering in of All the Waters" or "Great Long River," which have been interpreted by some to mean "Father of Waters," al- . though this is not a technically correct translation. The Indian term for this stream wojuld seem to indicate that the aborigines had a fair conception of its great size. Texas, our largest Commonwealth and the only one acquired by annexation, has for a name an Indian word which origi- nally meant "Friends" or "Allies" and which was also used as a form of greet- ing. Later it came to indicate a group of tribes generally allied against the Apaches of Arizona. The term grad- ually came to include tribes from regions as far apart as the Red River of Arkan- sas and the Rio Grande. The name was introduced by the early Spanish ex- plorers, from whom later French and English settlers received it. MEANINGS OF TENNESSEE AND KENTUCKY ARE OBSCURE Like many other States, Tennessee is named for its principal' river, although this name was originally given to one of its southerly tributaries and later spread to the main stream. The name is of Cherokee origin and came from a village or locality, Tanasse, inhabited by this great southern tribe. The meaning of the word has been lost, and interpreta- tions, such as "Bend in the River," from the meanderings of the stream, are merely fanciful. The Blue Grass State, Kentucky, also bears a name of uncertain origin and meaning. Reliable authorities state that the name was derived from an Indian word, "Kentake," meaning "Meadow Land." On the other hand, General George Rogers Clark, one of our greatest pioneers and one of the conquerors of this region, claimed that the word "Ken- tuke," meaning "River of Blood," gave the State its name. It has also been said that the word is of Shawnee Indian ori- gin and means "At the head of a river," from the fact that this tribe used the Kentucky River in its migrations north and south. The popular translation of "Dark and Bloody Ground" was given to Daniel Boone, the famous borderer of the early days of the State, by an intelli- gent Indian chief of his day, and the title is supposed to have been descriptive of the bloody warfare in colonial times, not only between the Indians and the whites, but also between the Indians from both sides of the Ohio River, who used this region as a battle-ground. The Buckeye State, Ohio, takes its name from its principal river, which bore a long Iroquois Indian name meaning "Beautiful River." Illinois is named for the Illini tribe of Indians, who lived in that section and whose name meant "Men," and to which the French added their adjective termi- nation, "ois." INDIANS OFTEN USED NAMES OF RIVERS AND LAKES The name of another Indian tribe, Ah- hee-oo-ba, is perpetuated in Iowa. The name meant "Sleepy Ones" or "Drowsy Ones," and this probably goes far to- ward explaining why this tribe was nearly exterminated by the Sioux. Its members lived in the valley of the 'State's principal river, to which they gave their name and after which, in turn, the State was named. The Indian's penchant for naming places after bodies of water is further illustrated in the name of Michigan, which comes from an Algonquin word, "Mishigamaw," meaning "Big Lake" or "Great Water," and called, of course, after the great lake of that name. Now we come to another State name the origin and meaning of which are un- certain. Wisconsin, written by the early French explorers of that region as "Ouisconsin" and named for its chief stream, is thought to have come from a Sak Indian word translated as "Wild Rushing Channel" and also as having reference to holes in the banks of streams where birds nest. However, neither of these interpretations can be confirmed. Another river-named State is Minne- sota, derived from a Sioux Indian word meaning "Cloudy Water" or "Sky-tinted Water." J8 8 J s § ^ I 2 « •X j ^ Q c - I i O 2 Q < 2 - < C/5 V) C rt1 Tn w o 5 M i g | ^ ^ < i 1 ? -3 u- O 130 131 132 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from N. H. Barton ALONG THE DOCKS AT GALVESTON, TEXAS The "Lone Star State" derives its name from an Indian word meaning "Friends" or "Allies." Our greatest western stream gives its name to Missouri, and its yellow flow toward its mouth well merits its mean- ing, "Muddy Water." The popular meaning often given to Arkansas is "Bend or Bow in the Kan- sas/' but it is manifest that this is erro- neous, for this river does not enter the State. One of the Indian tribes of that region bore this name, which was written by early French explorers as "Alkansia" or "Alkansas" and in many other forms. The meaning of the word has been lost. In 1808 certain pioneers resident in Arkansas County of Missouri Territory petitioned Congress to establish the Ter- ritory of Arkansas ; hence these men are the ones who perpetuated the Indian name. The wide plains of the Dakotas were the home of the Sioux or Dakota tribes, and this name, which, according to dia- lect, was also written "Lakota," "Lah- kota," or "Nakota," and signifies "Allies," was used as the common name of all the confederated Sioux tribes. The Sioux tongue also gives us Ne- braska, an Otoe Sioux word meaning "Shallow Water" or "Broad Water," terms descriptive of the river for which the State is named. For the perpetua- tion of this name we are indebted to Sec- retary of War Wilkins, of President Tyler's Cabinet, who in 1844 suggested THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 133 m Photograph from Publishers' Photo Service, Inc. A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN FLIGHT FROM STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT, TO MINEOLA, LONG ISLAND The Nutmeg State derives its Indian name from Quonoktacut, which the aborigines called the river now known as the Connecticut. that the Nebraska River (now known as the Platte) would furnish a suitable name for the territory then being formed. The State of Kansas was named for an Indian tribe which inhabited that re- gion and lived along the river to which it gave its name. The Kansas or Kanza Indians* were of the Sioux family and their name means "Wind People" or "People of the South Wind." Oklahoma also bears a tribal name, taken from the Choctaw tongue. It has the peculiarly significant meaning of "Red People." WYOMING'S NAME ORIGINATED IN PENNSYLVANIA It is a strange fact that a valley in Pennsylvania, famed for a Revolutionary massacre, and a far western State should bear the same name ; yet the latter is named for the former. Two meanings, both well supported by competent au- thorities, have been given to the word Wyoming. One is that it is a corruption of a Delaware or Leni-Lenape word, "Maugh-wau-wama," meaning "Exten- sive Plains." The other interpretation which has been put upon it is "Mountains with Valleys Alternating." Both of these meanings could be fittingly applied to the State of Wyoming. One of the most highly civilized In- dian tribes in the history of the New World, the Aztecs, has given us a State name, for our southern neighbor derives her name from the word "Mexitli," an Aztec tutelary divinity; hence New Mex- ico. Another meaning given to this word is "Habitation of the God of War." A small southwestern tribe, the Papa- gos, a peaceful people and sadly harassed by the warlike Apaches, gives us the name of Arizona. It is taken from a * •£ s ffc e. J £ -^ S ^ bfi <w § -eft to (U^to w E'.c S h ^ < "S.S ^ (U s ll w M IS .S3! 5? % *X ^ w c H C V "5^ 134 135 o * 2 i.f rt - 136 137 138 r a 139 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Frederick I. Monsen INDIAN CHILDREN PLAYING IN A POOL AT ORAIBI, ARIZONA According to most authorities, the State name, "Arizona," is derived from an Indian word meaning "Place of the Small Springs." Others trace its origin to the Aztec word Arizuma, meaning "silver bearing." THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN STATE NAMES 141 Photograph from George R. King A LUMBER CART IN THE ZUNI MOUNTAINS OF NEW MEXICO "Habitation of the God of War" is one of the fanciful meanings given to the name Ne\v Mexico, which is derived from that of our neighbor republic on the south. New Mexico's motto suggests a snowball — Crescit cnndo (It increases by going). former locality of theirs called "Ari- zonac" or "Arizonaca," meaning- "Place of the Small Springs." It was located a few miles from the present town of Nogales, where, in about 1737, some cele- brated nuggets of silver were found. The word has no connection with the meaning, "arid zone," sometimes given it. The Mormon State, Utah, takes its name from the Ute tribe of Indians, who lived in that section. The origin of the name is unknown. Idaho is named from an Indian word meaning "Gem of the Mountains" — a most descriptive title for that highland State. ELEVEN STATES NAMED FOR INDIVIDUALS It may be of interest to note the vari- ous groups into which our State names divide themselves. Eleven were named for individuals, eight for rivers and lakes, five for mountains, six for other natural features, six for various Indian peoples, four for Indian words, five for other lands, and one for a holy day, while two are of unknown origin. It is to be regretted that our earlier explorers have not been honored in our State names. Columbus, de Soto, Ponce de Leon, La Salle, Marquette, Lewis and Clark, and others might appropriately have States named for them rather than obscure and little-known Indian tribes and English and French sovereigns,* who, although we may respect their memory, mean little to us today. And yet, might not Indian terms have been employed in State names with more discretion than they were and with a more fitting sense of the regions named ? Penobscot or Kennebec would make better State names than Maine, Chesapeake than Vir- ginia, Potomac than Maryland, and Ca- tawba than the Carolinas. The case of Kanawha versus West Virginia has al- ready been noted. Would not Yosemite have been a better State name than Cali- fornia, and might not Oregon better have been named Columbia, thus^having both 142 THE CHANNEL ISLANDS 14: the State and its principal river per- petuate the name of the discoverer of the continent ? The "New's," "West's," "North's," and "South's" with which many of our State names are prefixed are inappropriate and would seem to indicate a lack of imagina- tion in naming the various regions. In place of these titles, such representative and well-known Indian names as Yeman- see, Adirondack, Alleghany, Mononga- hela, Altamaha, Miami, Snohomish, Ya- kima, Tacoma, and many other river and mountain names might have been fittingly used to designate some of our States. In conclusion, let it be said that it is possible the meaning ascribed to the names of some of the States may be in- accurate. This is chiefly owing to the fact that many of the States were named before the days of historical societies- and in some cases the only sources of in- •formation* are old letters, crude maps, and Indian legends. THE CHANNEL ISLANDS Bits of France Picked Up by England, Whose History is Linked with That of America BY EDITH CAREY VICTOR HUGO has called the Channel Islands "Bits of France fallen into the sea and picked up by England." Geographically and ra- cially he was right, but "Morceaux de France" politically they never have been ; and Englishmen should realize that while their Spanish fellow-subjects in Gibraltar, their Italian fellow-subjects in Malta, and their French fellow-subjects in Quebec bear witness to England's conquests, their fellow-subjects in the Channel Islands re- mind them that they themselves have been conquered. And although India, Africa, Canada, and Australia may tell of Eng- land's valor and England's enterprise, yet Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark — yes, even Herm and Jethou — tell us far more of England's history. In these islands archaeologists will find records of the past dating almost from the very beginnings of the human race. SECRETS OE THE TAST REVEALED IX JERSEY'S CAVES In Jersey are two Mousterian caves. The one at La Cotte Ste. Brelade has been opened recently and is now being excavated. Its remains prove that the primitive mammoth (Elcphas trogon- therii), the great Irish elk, the reindeer, the cave hyena, the wolf, and the woolly rhinoceros roamed these shores, which were then attached to the mainland, while dolmens and menhirs in each of the islands, "gray, recumbent tombs of the dead in desert places," bear witness to the existence here of Neolithic Man at least seventeen thousand years ago. In spite of the fact that Breton saints introduced Christianity into the islands as early as the sixth century, heathen beliefs and practices long continued. HAUNTS OF WITCHES IN THE ISLANDS Paganism, unlike more developed forms of religion, had its strength in local tra- ditions and associations, in holy places — wells, trees, and hills — charged with mysterious potencies ; and to this day various dolmens and caverns, the Roque Berg and Roche a la Fee in Jersey, the Catioroc, Creux des Fees, and Mont Saint in Guernsey, are known to every Channel Islander as the haunts of witches and evil spirits and the erstwhile abode of fairies. The waters of the "wishing well" of Saint George in Guernsey are still looked upon as magically curative. Among the distinctive charms of the islands are the dim memories of past races — devil worshippers and sorcerers — which still linger, old traditions of days when "shapes that coiled in the woods W £ O M-, s g t/J 0> u 6 S I H % c/) 12 u ^ d •J- o « i > S O oj (-{ « a < 3 K 2 be Q ^ O 1= 144 145 146 THE CHANNEL ISLANDS 147 and waters" were worshipped on altars of stone, or by magic wells in sacred groves, or "high places," as the Bible calls them. In spite of persecutions of church and state, these old worships endured ; witches and warlocks used to meet at cross-roads or at so-called "Druidic" remains and perform secret rites and ceremonies, which, though degraded and perverted after so many centuries of use, undoubt- edly were survivals of obsolete faiths and primitive cults. A WOMAN CONDEMNED FOR WITCHCRAFT ONLY SIX YEARS AGO The Puritans of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did their best to extinguish these practices, and the rec- ords at the Guernsey Greffe show that in that island alone, between the years 1563 and 1639, 20 men and 71 women were imprisoned, banished, or burnt alive in the market-place for witchcraft and sor- cery. That these beliefs even now are not extinct is proved by the fact that, as late as January 29, 1914, a woman was tried and condemned by the Gueni^y Royal Court for ''fortune-telling and witchcraft." In Jersey and Guernsey these remind- ers of Stone and Bronze Age cults are supplemented 'by the more tangible col- lections of stone axes and implements, of Neolithic pottery, of bronze and iron swords, and by Jersey's golden torque, to be seen in the Museum of the Societe Jersiaise at Saint Helier and in the Lukis Museum in Saint Peter Port. There also can be seen evidences of successive Gaul- ish and Roman occupations in a nearly perfect series of coins unearthed at dif- ferent periods in the four larger islands. THE NORMANS ORIGINATED OUR COURTS It is not until the tenth century A. D. that we discover written records directly dealing with English history ; and then we find that hordes of pirates from the far north swept down upon the unpro- tected islands, burning, pillaging, and conquering, and from the churches the despairing prayer went up: "From the fury of the Normans, Good Lord deliver us !" It is to these Normans we can ascribe the foundations of our local courts. Their in the open air and presided over by a tribal king who was also the priest of the gods. There is evidence that originally all our feudal courts were held in the open air, either near sacred stones, or wells, or other consecrated sites. In Guernsey some of the smaller feudal courts still assemble at the same spots, and their officers — senechal, greffier, and vavas- seurs — still swear with uplifted hand to be faithful vassals to their liege lord. Among the enduring monuments of the Northmen are the "hougues," or arti- ficial mounds of earth which they raised over their dead chieftains. HOW THE DUCHY OF NORMANDY WAS CREATED By the treaty of Saint Clair-sur-Epte. dating from the first quarter of the tenth century, Charles the Simple of France granted to the Scandinavian Jarl Rollo. King George's famous ancestor, the land, including the Channel Islands, situated "on the seacoasts of the Bretons" ; and thus the Duchy of Normandy came into being. Later documents show that in 1066. when the soldiers of William, Duke of Normandy, marched in triumph (the last alien enemies to do so) through London streets, the islands were already divided into parishes; churches had been en- dowed and built ; the Norman language, laws, and customs were well established ; Grosney Castle in Jersey and the Chateau des Marais in Guernsey were in exist- ence, and Norman abbots and barons practically divided the land and wealth of the islands between them. This connection with Normandy lasted unimpaired up to the days of King John, until the year 1204, when continental Normandy was lost to him forever. After that date, although the islands politically- belonged to England, yet their language., their laws, and their customs remained as before and have continued, with very- little alteration, to this day. For instance, the "Clameur de Haro,"' which was abolished in Normandy in.