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EGYPT
MONEY TABLE.
(Comp. pp. XV, xvi and Tables at end of the book.) Approximate Equivalents.
Arabic Kame
Egyptian Money
|
British |
French |
||
|
Money |
Money |
||
|
S) |
1 S |
||
|
! n |
<v |
H |
|
|
H |
a |
a |
|
|
CO |
cu |
IK |
o |
|
20 |
6Vi |
25 |
90 |
|
lU |
3 |
12 |
95 |
|
4 |
iVi |
5 |
18 |
|
2 |
V* |
2 |
59 |
|
1 |
H* |
1 |
;-)() |
|
h |
|
52 |
|
|
— |
21/2 |
— |
26 |
|
- |
2V2 |
- |
26 |
|
_ |
V/' |
— |
13 |
|
— |
— |
5 |
|
|
— |
v. |
— |
21/2 |
American Money
Gold Coins.
Oineih Masri (Egypt, pound, £ K)
Nuiseh oineih (half £ El ... .
Silver Coins.
Riydl Masri
Nusseh Ftiydl
Rub' Riydl
Kirshein (clnuble piastre) . . . .
Kirsh T
Kickel Coins.
Kirsh (great piastre ; Kirsh xAgh) v
X^usseh Kirsh (.small or half
piastre; Kirsh ta'rtfa)\ . . .
2 ifilliimes
1 MiUi^me (milyeim)
100:
50:
:iOOO : 500
: 200
: 100
: 50
: 20
: 10
10 —
50
+ The great piastre (rarely met in silver) is generally indicated by P. T. ('piastre tarif), sometimes also by P. E. ('piastre ^gyptienne'). The two piastres are frequently confounded by Europeans in retail transactions; attention therefore should be paid to the Arabic names, 'kirsh sagh' and 'kirsh ta'rifa'. The contraction 'pias.' is used uniformly throughout the Handbook for the great piastre (kirsh).
In Copper there are pieces of Vi ^"'^ '/* millieme.
Weights and Measures.
1 Lirhem = ■i.K grammes = 48.is grains troy; 1 Ukiya (12 dirhem) = 37.44 grammes — I.32 oz. avoirdupois ; 1 Roll (12 ukiya) = 449.28 grammes = 15.85 oz. (just under lib.); 1 Okka (400 dirhem) = I.048 kilogrammes = 2.7513 lbs. (about 2 lbs. 12 oz.) •, 1 Katitdr = 100 Rotl = 36 Okka = 44.928 kilo- grammes = 99.0498 lbs. (about 99 lbs." */b oz.).
1 Rub' a = 8.25 litres = 1 gal. 3 qts. 1/2 pint; 1 Weibeh = 4 rub'a = 33 litres = 7 gals. 1 gt. ; 1 Ardebb = 6 weibeh = 198 litres = 43 gals. 2 qts.
1 Dird' beledi = O.ss metre = 22.835 inches ; 1 Kasdbeh = 3.55 metres = 11 ft. 7.763 inches = 3.8S2 yds. — 1 Square Kasabeh = l'2.6o square metres = 15.072 sq. yds.; 1 Fedddn = 4200.83 sq. metres "= about 5024 sq. yds. = Loss acre.
In all official transactions the metrical system of weights and measures is employed.
Official Time.
East European Time {i.e. that of 30° E. long.) has been ofiicially adopted in Egypt and the Sudan. Egyptian time is thus 1 hr. in advance of Central Europe time (Italy, Switzerland, Germany) and 2 hrs. in advance of Green- wich time.
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EGYPT
AND
THE SUDAN
HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS
BY
KARL BAEDEKER
WITJI 22 MAI'S. S5 TT.ANS, AND 55 VIGNKTTES
SEVENTH REMODELLED EDITION
LEIPZIG: KARL BAEDEKER, PUBLISHER
LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN, 1 ADEI.PHI TERRACE, W.C. NEW VOUK: CHAS. SCHIBNER\S SONS, FIFTH AVE. AT 48TH ST.
1914 All riglttt reserved
'Go, little book, God send thee good passage, And specially let this be thy prayere Unto them all that thee will read or hear, Where thou art wrong, after their help to call, Thee to correct in any part or all.'
/ ^8(005.0
Made and Fbintkd in Gbrmant.
ARTS
PREFACE. (tlH
Ever since the attention of the civilized world was re- directed to Egypt at the beginning of the 19tli century, the scientific investigation of its innumerable monuments has pointed with ever-growing certainty to the valley of the Nile as the cradle of history and of human culture. At the same time Egypt, like other Eastern countries, possesses high nat- ural attractions, in the peculiar charms of its oriental cli- mate, the singularly clear atmosphere, the wonderful colour- ing and effects of light and shade, the exuberant fertility of the cultivated districts contrasted with the solemn desert, and the manners, customs, and appearance of a most inter- esting and most diversified population.
The Handbook to Egypt i-, of which the present is the seventh edition, is founded on the combined work of several Egyptologists and other Oriental scholars. Among the former must be specially mentioned Professor Georg Steindorff, of Leipzig University, who has edited the German Handbook since the year 1897, and has also supervised the preparation of the English editions. The Editor gratefully acknowledges also the information received from numerous correspondents and official sources which has often proved most useful; any further corrections or suggestions will be highly appreciated.
The Editor hopes, that by confining himself to essential points and by carefully arranging his material, he has suc- ceeded, within small compass, in supplying the traveller with the necessary information regarding the country and the people he is about to visit. An attempt has been made to in- dicate clearly the most important among the bewildering mnl- tiplicity of the monuments of antiquity, and the descriptions of these have been so arranged that, assuming the traveller to have previously read at his leisure our account of the origin, history, and significance of a particular temple or tomb, etc.,
T The contents (if the Handbook are divided into Foub Sections d. Introductory MattfT. Approaches to Egypt, pp. i-cxc and 1-6; II. Lower Egypt, pp. 7-198; III. Upper Egypt, Lower jfubia, Upper Nubia and the Sudan, pp. 199-436; IV. General Inde.v, pp. 4374.581, each of which may be separ.Ttely removed from the vnlume by cuttinc: the gauze backing visible on opening the book at the requisite pages. Linen covers for these sections may be obtained through any liookseller.
vi4^i/ir„ PREFACE.
he will find adequate guidance on the spot in that portion of our description that is printed in larger type, while those who have time and inclination for a more thorough examination will find additional particulars in small type.
The Maps and Plans have been the object of the Editor's special care, and all have been carefully revised by Prof. Steindorflf, with the aid of the most recent publications. Nine maps and plans, several new ground-plans, and a represen- tation of Egyptian coins have been entirely redrawn or appear for the first time in the present edition. The spelling of the names on the maps of the Faiyiim and of the Nile from Cairo to Assuan (3 sheets) follows the official French transliteration of the 'Recensement general de I'Egypte du ler juin 1897', whereas in some of the new maps the spelling of the Egyptian Survey Department (comp. p. cxc) has been adopted. At the end ot' the volume will be found a key-map indicating the ground covered by the special maps of the volume.
Hotels, etc., see p. xviii. Hotels which cannot be ac- curately characterized without exposing the Editor to the risk of legal proceedings are left unuientioned.
To hotel- proprietors, tradesmen, and others the Editor begs to intimate that a character for fair dealing towards travellers is the sole passi)ort to his commendation, and that no advertisements of any kind are admitted to his Hand- books. Hotel-keepers are warned against persons represent- ing themselves as agents for Baedeker's Handbooks.
Abbreviations.
PI. = plan. I S. = south, etc.
R. = route; room. E. = east, etc.
B. = breakfast. I W. = west, etc.
D. = dinner. ; lir. = hour
pens. = pension (board and lodging)
ca. = circa, about.
comp. — compare.
r. = right.
1. = left.
Dyn. = dynasty
mill. = minute.
M. = English mile.
ft. = English foot.
yd. = yard.
iBE = Egyptian pound]
pias. = piastre >coiiip. p. xv.
N. = north, northwards, northern. | mill. = millieme
The letter d with a date, after the name of a person, indicates the year of his death. The number of feet given after the name of a place shows its height above the sea-level. The number of miles placed before the principal places on railway -routes, steamer -routes, and highroads indicates their distance from the starting-point of the route.
Asterisks denote objects of special interest or imply commendation.
CONTENTS.
Page
I. Preliminary Information xiii
(1). Plan of Tour. Season. Expenses. Money. Equip- ment. Travelling Companions xiii
(2). Coinage. Passports. Custom House xv
(8). Conveyance^ : Steamers. Railways. Narrow Gauge
Railways. Cabs. Donkeys xvii
[4). Hotels xviii
(^5). Post and Telegraph Offices xix
(61. Public Safety. Consulates. Courts of Justice . . xx (7). Egypt as a Health Resort. Medical Hints (by
Dr. Leigh Canney) xxi
(8). Intercourse with Orientals. Dragomans .... xxiv (9). 4J"*^i*ii Caf^s. Story Tellers. Musicians. Singers.
Shadow Plays. Baths xxvi
(10). The Egyptian Dialect of Arabic (by Dr. C. Priifer) xxviii
II. Geographical and Political Notes xlvi
a. Area and Subdivisions of Egypt (by Captain H.
6. Lyons) xlvi
b. Origin and Present Condition of the Egyptians (by
Prof. O. Schweinfurlh') xlviil
il). The Fellahin li
(2). Copts liv
(3). Beduins Ivii
(4). Arab Dwellers in Towns lix
(5). Nubians Ix
(6). Sudan Nej^roes Ixi
(7). Turks Ixi
(8). Levantines, Syrians, etc Ixi
(9). Armenians and Jeves Ixii
(10). Europeans Ixii
c. The Nile (by Captain H. 6. Lyons) Ixiv
d. Geology of Egypt and Notice of the Desert . . . Ixviii
e. Agriculture and Vegetation Ixx
(1). Capabilities of the Soil IxX
(2). Irrigation Ixxi
(3). Agricultural Seasons (Winter. Summer, and
Autumn Crops). Agricultural Implements . . Ixxiii
(4). Farm Produce of Egypt Ixxiv
(5). Trees and Plantations Ixxv
f. Climate of Egypt (by Captain H. O. Lyons) . . . Ixxvi HI. El-lslam (by Prof. C. H. Becker) Ixxix
Remarks on Mohammedan Customs xciii
Mohammedan Calendar. Festivals .... ... xuv
Tiii CONTENTS.
Page IV. Outline of the History of Egypt xcviii
I. Ancient History (by Prof. 6. Steindorff) .... xcviii
a. From the Earliest Times to the Macedonian Conquest in 332 B.C xcviii
1. Prehistoric Period xcviii
2. Earliest Period of the Kings xcix
3. Ancient Empire xcix
4. Middle Empire c
5. New Empire ci
6. Period of Foreign Domination civ
7. Late-Egyptian Period cv
b. Grffico-Ronian Period (332 B.C.-640 A.D.) . . evil
1. Alexander the Great and the Ptolemaic Period cvii
2. Roman Period ex
3. Byzantine Period . . . ■ cxii
II. The Middle Ages cxiii
Egypt as a Pnivince of the Empire of the Caliphs cxiii
Egypt under Independent Rulers cxv
III. Modern History cxx
Turkish Domination after 1517 cxx
The French Occupation cxx
Jlohammed Ali and his Successors o\x
V. Hieroglyphics (by Prof. G. Steindorff) ....*. cxxvi
1. Phonetic Symbols cxxviii
2. Word Signs cxxix
3. Determinatives cxxx
4. Frequently recurring Cartouches of Egyptian Kings . cxxxiii
VI. Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (by2>o/'.G.5temdor^) cxl List of the chief Egyptian Deities and Sacred Animal? cxlix Representations of the most important Deities .... cliii
VII. Historical Notice of Egyptian Art (by Prof. 0. Steindorff) clvii
1. Architecture ^ clvii
2. Sculpture and Painting clxxi
VIII. Buildings of the Mohammedans (by Franz-Pasha) . clxxviii
Mosques clxxx
Tombs clxxxii
Dwelling Hon.ses clx.xxiii
IX. Works on Egypt clxxxvii
Route
1. Approaches to Egypt (Steamship Lines) 1
Lower Egfypt.
2. Alexandria 9
3. From Alexandria to Cairo 31
4. Cairo 35
5. Environs of Cairo 104
6. The Pyramids of Gizeh 123
7. The Site of Ancient Memphis and the Necropolis of Sakkara 142
8. Baths of Helwan 167
9. From Cairo to Mansura via Helbeis and Zakazik .... 170 10. From Tanta to Damietta via Mansura 174
CONTENTS. ix
Ronte Page
11. From Port Sa'id to Cairo or Suez via Isma'iliyeh .... 177
1'2. The Suez Canal from Port Sa'id to Suez 181
13. Suez and its Environs 187
14. The Faiyum 190
Tipper Egypt.
Preliminary Information 200
15. From Cairo to Luxor by Railvray 205
16. From Cairo to As^iut by the Nile 224
17. From Assiut to Girgeh and Baliana (Abydos) by the Nile 235 IS. Abydos . ' 237
19. From Baliana to Keneh (Dendera) and Luxor by the Nile 244
20. Luxor and its Environs : the Site of Ancient Thebes . . 251
21. From Luxor to Assuan by Railway 332
22. From Luxor to Edfu by the Nile 341
23. From Edl'u to Assuan by the Nile 348
24. Assuan and its Environs. Philae and the Nile Dam 353, 362
25. Routes through the Eastern Desert 372
26. The Western Oases 378
Lower Nubia.
Preliminary Information 383
27. From Shellal (Phil.-cl to Kalabsheh 387
28. From Kalabsheh to Korosko 393
29. From Korosko to .4bu Simbel 399
30. The Rock Temples of Abu Simbel 404
31. From Abu Simbel to Wadi Haifa ... 410
Upper Nubia and the Stidan.
Political Summary. Climate. Preliminary Information . 415
32. From AVadi Haifa to Khartum 419
33. From Suez to Khartum via Port Sudan 423
34. Khartum and Omdurman 426
Longer Excursions to the Southern Sudan 432
Index 437
Maps.
Page
1. Map of the Delia (1 : 1,000,000), before the Title Page.
2. Map of the Ewirom of Alexandria (1 : 125,000). with (31 Map of the Mareotis Distrirt (1 : 1 ,000,000) 25
4. Map of the Immediate Envirorn of Cairo (1 : 75,000), with
(^5) Map of the Road to the Pyramids {l : 125,000) ... 105
X MAPS AND PLANS.
Page
6. Suruey Map of the Environs of Cairo (1 : 250,000; show- ing Extent of Special Maps) 119
7. Map of the Suez Canal (1 : 500,000) 185
8. Map of the Oulf of Suez (1 : 150,000), with (9) Map of
the Springs of Moses (1 : 50,000) ' 187
10. Map of the FaiyUm (i:bOO,000) 190
11. Map of the Nile from Cairo to Benihasan (1 : 500,000) . 205
12. Map of the Nile from Benihasan to (Baliana) Nag' Ha- madj (1 : 500,000) . . . .' 231
13. Map of the Nile from Nag' Hamddi to Assudn (1 : 500,000) 244
14. Survey Map of Thebes (1 : 50,000) 254
15. Map of the Envirom of Assudn (1 : 100,000) 353
16. Map of the Island of Philae (1 : 8030) 364
17. Map of the NileValley from Cairo to Assudn (1 : 5,000,000;
the Western Oases) 378
18. Map of the Nile from Assudn to Wddi Haifa (1 : 1,000,000), with (19) Map of the Environs of Wddi Haifa as far as
the Second Cataract (1 : 250,000) . . . '. 387
20. Map of the Environs of KhartHm and Omdurmdn
(1 : 500,0001 ■ 426
1i. Map of the Southern Saddn (i -.[0,000,000) 432
22, General Map of Egypt (1 : 10,000,000, showing lixtent of
Special Maps), after the Index.
Flans.
1. Section of the Step Pyramid of Sakkdra clxix
2. Arabian Dwelling House: Ground Floor olxxxiv
3. Arabian Dwelling House: First Floor clxxxv
4. Plan of Alexandria (1 : 18,000), with (5) Plan of the Inner Town (1 : 10,000) 9
6. Plan of Ancient Alexandria, 100 B.C. - 100 A.D.
(1 : 58,800) 12'
7. Plan of Ancient Alexandria in the 3rd-5tli cent, after Christ (1 : 58,800) 13
8. Catacombs of Kom esh-Shakdfa 17
9. Graeco-Roman Museum at Alexandria 22
10. Plan of Ramleh (1 : 40,000) 25
11. Plan of Cairo (_i -.12,300) 35
12. Mosque of El-Azhar (Arabian University; 1 : 1250) . . 57
13. Mosque of El-Muaiyad (1 : 1500) 60
14. Arabian Museum at Cairo 63
15. Mosque of Sultan Hasan 67
16. Mosque of Mohammed AU 69
17. Mosque of Ibn Tulun 72
18. Egyptian 'Museum at Cairo 81
19. Plan of Old Cairo (^i -.7150 ) 106
PLANS. xl
Page
20. Church of Ahu Sergeh, a.t Old C&ixo 108
2i. Plan of the Tombs of the Caliphs {1:12,500) HI
22. Tomb Mosque of Sultan BarMk 112
23. Tomb Mosque of Kait Bey .' .' 114
24. Plan of the Pyramids of Gtzeh (1 : 13,560) 123
25. Section of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh 127
26. Section of the Second Pyramid of Gtzeh 132
27. Section of the Third Pyramid of Gheh 134
28. Valley Temple of Khephren 136
29. Plan of the Buins of Memphis (i: 20,000) 143
30. Plan of the Pyramids and Tombs of Sakkdra and Abuih (1:25,000) \ . ." ■ . 145
31 . Sernpeum at Sakkdra 148
32. Mastaba of Ti ." 150
33. Mastaba of Mereruka 160
34. Mastaba of Ke-gem-ni 162
35. Mastaba of Ptahhotep 164
36. Plaiiof Helioan{i:2b,000) 169
37. 88. Plans of the Harbour aiid the Toirn of Port Sa'td (1:50,000 and 1:25,000) 177
39. Plan of Suez (1:25,000) 187
40. Family Tomb of AmenopMs IV. 217
41. Plan of Abydos (i : iA,600) 238
42. Temple of Sethos I. at Abydos (i : UIG) ^ 239
43. Temple of Hathor at Dendera (1 : 685) 246
44. 45, 46. Crypts of the Temple at Dendera (1 : 685) . .248, 249
47. Plan of Luxor (i -.10,000) 251
48. Temple of Luxor (1 : lOQl) 258
49. Temple of Khons at Karnak 263
50. Sketch Plan of Karnak (1 : 4000) 264
51. Temple of Ammon at Karnak {I : i'dOi) 265
52. Plan of the Necropolis of Thebes (1 : 19,000), with (53) Plan
of the Tombs of the Kings at Blbdn el-Muluk (1 : 10,000) '281
54. Temple of Sethos L at Kurna , . 282
55. Tomb of Ramses IV. .' 286
56. Tomb of Ramses IX 287
57. Tomb of Amenephthes 287
58. Tomb of Ramses VI 288
59. Tomb of Ramses III 289
60. Tomb of Sethos 1 292
61. Tomb of Thutmom III 296
62. Tomb of Amenophis II 297
63. Tomb of Thutmosis 1 297
64. Temple of Deir el-Bahri 299
65. The Ramesseum (1 : 1200) 806
66. Tomb of liekhmere 310
xli VIGNETTES.
Page
67. Tomb of Sennofer 310
68. Tomb of Amenemheb 311
69. Tomb of Nakht 314
70. Temple of Deir el- Medlneh 317
71. TombofHuye 318
72. Tomb of Queen Titi 320
73. Tomb of Prince Amen-her-khopshef 321
74. Tomb of Ne fret- ere Mi-en-Mut 321
75. Temple of Medlnet Habu (1 : 2300) 322
76. Rock Chapel of Gebel Silsileh 339
77. Temple of Horm at Edfu 344
78. Temple of Kom Ombo 350
79. Plan of Assuan (1 : 25,000) 353
80. Temple of Isls on Philne (I : 1006) 365
81. Temple of Kaldhsheh 390
82. Temple of Gerf-Hvsein 394
83. Great Temple of Abu Simbel 405
84. Temple of Hathor at Ahu Simbel 409
85. Plan of Kliariam and Omdurman [1 : 60,000) 426
Vignettes.
1. Egyptian Coins xvi
2. Mohammedan Posttires of Prayer Isxxvii
3. Cartouches of Egyptian Kings (jxxxiii-uxxxix
4-23. Mythological Illustrations cliii-clvi
24-30. Art Illustrations clviii-clx, clxLv, clxxii
31, 32. Water Carrier* (Sakka, Hemali) "/ 48
33. Public Kitchen ' 49
34. /Iranian Barber 49
35-54. Reliefs in the Mastaba of Ti, at Sakkara .... 151-158 55. Hypostyle Hall at Karnak f reconstruction, after Maspero) 269
xlii
I. Preliminary Inforaiation.
(1). Plan of Tour. Season. Expenses. Money. Equipment. Travelling Companions.
Plan. The intending visitor to Egypt may make an outline of his tour at home with as great ease as for any of the countries of Europe. A glimpse of the country may he obtained in 4 or 5 weeks (exclusive of the journey out") as follows: 2 days may be devoted to Alexandria and the journey thence to Cairo — travellers landing at Port Sa'id should take the first train to Cairo, as the town is uninteresting — 10 days may be spent in Cairo and its neighbour- hood (pp. 35 et seq.), 12 days suffice for the railway-journey to As- suan and back (or 20 days by a tourist-steamer), and 3 days may be given to Assuaii (p. 353), while a few days must be set aside for resting. An excursion to the Faiyum (R. 14) or to the oasis of Khargeh (p. 379) takes 3-4 days. — An expedition to Upper Nubia (from Assuan to Wadi Haifa and back) requires 7 days by tourist- steamer (see p. 384) ; but if the quicker government steamer (p. 383) is used and the railway from "Wadi Haifa, the excursion can be ex- tended to Khartum (p. 420) within almost the same period. A month should be allowed for tlie steamer-trip from Khartum to Gondokoro (Rejaf) and bai-k (p. 434), and 4 days for the return from Khartum to Suez via Port Sudan (R. 33).
Season. The best time for a tour in Egypt is between Nov. 1st and Maylst, .Tan. to March being the most crowded period. In Alexandria stormy and rainy weather very often prevails from December to March, but in the interior of Egypt, to the S. of a line joining Dainanliijr, Tanta, and Mansura, the case is con- siderably altered. JCven in the Delta, however, marked falls in temperature (sometimes to 43" Fahr.) occur between the end of November and the end of Marcli, and rain-storms, rendering the roads almost impassable, are not infrequent. In Cairo December, January, and sometimes February are distinctly chilly, which is the more inconvenient as there are no adequate heating-arrangements in the houses ; but November and March are very fine, as also usually are October, April, and May, especially for travellers who do not object to a little heat. In Upper Egypt, from the beginning of November till the middle or end of April, the prevalent weather is that of a delicious spring or moderate summer. Those who intend to winter in Egypt should spend November in Cairo, move on thence in December, on the approach of cold weather, to Upper Egypt (Luxor, Assuan), and return to Cairo in February. — In summer prices are naturally much lower, but most of the larger hotels are closed.
Expenses. The cost of a tour in Egypt, and in oriental coun- tries generally, is greater than that of a visit to most parts of Europe, and the traveller should estimate his average daily expenditure at
Xiy I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 1. Equipment.
not less than 25-30«. (Steamboat and railway fares are of course extra; pp. 1-6.) The traveller whose time is very limited, or who is accompanied by ladies, will require also the services of a guide, or 'dragoman' (p. xxv; 5-lOa. per day). With modest requirements, however, it is possible to live more cheaply.
Money. A small sum of money for the early part of the journey may be taken in English or French gold, but large sums should always be in the form of letters of credit or circular notes. These are issued by the principal London banks and by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son. Travellers proceeding to Upper Egypt may deposit these notes in Cairo and have supplies sent after them, as required, by money orders. European bankers in Alexandria and Cairo, see pp. 10, 37. The National Bank of Egypt has branches or agents in most Egyptian towns and also in Khartum, Suakin, and Port Sudan. The cheques issued by the American Express Companies, the Ameri- can Bankers' Association, and the International Navigation Co. are convenient also. — For Money Orders, see p. xix.
Equipment. For all ordinary purposes a couple of light tweed suits, a few flannel and soft cotton shirts, a supply of thin woollen socks, one pair of light and easy boots, one of shoes, and one of slippers, a moderately warm ulster or long travelling cloak, a pith helmet and a soft felt hat or a straw hat, together with the most necessary articles of the toilet, will amply suffice. Evening dress is usually worn at dinner at the principal hotels. Riding-breeches and gaiters are convenient for excursions. All articles should be new and strongly made, as it is often difficult to get repairs properly executed in Egypt. I'cw travellers walk in Egypt, except for very short distances, but sportsmen should add a stout pair of waterproof shooting-boots to their ciiuipmcnt.
Among the most important extras to be brought from Europe are a drinking-cup of leather or metal, » flask, a strong pocket-knife, a thermo- meter, a pocket-compass, a lield-glass, and an electric, acetylene, or' mag- nesium lamp for lighting caverns and dark chambers. — Phutographic materials, dry plates, film.s, etc., can be obtained in Cairo, but it is pre- ferable to bring a good stock carefully packed (films in air-tight tin cases) from home, taking care to attend the customs examination in_ person. On account of the climate photographs should be developed ' as soon as possible; but the traveller should be chary of entrusting his negative.s (particularly in the case of Dims) to small photograph dealers.
Companions. The facilities for travel in Egypt are now such that even the inexperienced traveller will have little^difflculty in managing an independent tour, without recourse to the assistance of tourist-agents or of dragomans (p. xxv), which add considerably to the cost. — In spring and autumn Tourist Parties are organized for a visit to Egypt and the East by the tourist-agents Afc.'srs. Thos. Cook <f Son (Ludgate Circus, London) and the Hamburg ^' Anglo- American Nile Co. (15 Cockspur St., Loudon, S.W.), programmes of which, with full information, may be obtained free on application. Travellers who join such parties are enabled to inspect the principal
5. Coinage. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xt
points of interest with the minimum expenditure of time and trouble, but must naturally surrender, to a great extent, both their freedom of choice of companions and the disposal of their time. The expenses are not below those of an independent tour.
(2). Coinage. Passports. Custom House.
Coinage (comp. the illustrations on p. xvl and the tables before the title-page and at the end of the book). The Egyptian Pound ('Livre Egyptienne'; £E) is worth 20s. B'/irf., and is divided into 1000 Mil- liemes or lOO Piastres. The Arabic name for the piastre is Kirsh (pi. Kurush; pronounced in Cairo ^irsh, urusli), but the European name is everywhere current. Travellers should note the distinction that is still frequently made between the 'great piastre" (kirsh sdgh), worth 10 raillieraes, and the 'little (or half) piastre' (kirsh la'rtfa) , worth f) milliemes. — F]gyptian gold coins are .seldom met with, their place being taken by the British sovereign {Qineih inglhi = 97 pias. i) mill.) and the French napoleon (20 fr. ; Bintu =^ 77 pias. 2 mill., but reg- ularly reckoned at 77 pias.), both of whi<h are legally current, and by the banknotes of the National Bank of Egypt (for oO pias., £ E 1, £ E 5, £ E 10, £ E 50, and £ E 100). At Alexandria and Suez, and a few other points, reckoning also in francs is still common. Where British influence is strong, and especially in Cairo, the vfoxdShiliirxj . is used for the Riib' liiyOl^ which is equivalent to about la. ^/t^d. Copper coins (comp. p. iil are met with only in dealings with tlie natives. All the Egyptian roins are minted at Birmingham.
A liheral supply of small change is more essential in (he Kast than anywhere else (comp. pp. x.xiv, 37). When obtaining change, travellers should be on their fjuard against counterfeit or depreciated (i.e. worn or perforated) pieces, which arc common enough.
Passpoets are not absolutely necessary; and one's visiting-card practically serves all its functions in the interior. Bankers, however, freqtiently require strangers to (;st.Tblish their identity by some such document; and the countenance and help of consuls also must depend upon the proof of nationality offered to them by the travelleT. — Travellers who intend to proceed to Turkey must be provided either with a passport vise by a Turkish consul at home or with a tezkereh (travelling permit) to be obtained through a consul.
Passports may be obtained in Great Britain direct from the Passport De- partment of the Foreign Office (fee 2.^.) or through any nf the usual tonrist- agents. — In the United States application for pas,<!iiorts should be made to the Bureau of Citizenship, State De.partment, Washington, U.C.
Custom Housr. Tourists' luggage is subjected to a custom- house examination at the port of entry. The objects chiefly sought for are tobacco and cigars, ou which a somewhat high tax is levied (20 or 25 pias. per kilogramme or 2'/5lbs.). Unused articles are sub- ject to an ad valorem duty of 8 per cent, at Alexandria an additional V2 V^^ <5®"^ ^s charged for quay and paving dues. A similar duty is levied on motor-cars, cycles, type-writing machines, and tirearms
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 2. Coinage. Egyptian Coins Silver Coins
20 piastres (riyal masri; ca. is.) 10 piastres (nusseh riyal; ca. 2t.)
5 piastres (rub' riyal;
2 piastres
(kirsbein ;
ca. 5d.)
1 piastre
(kirsh safsh
ca. 2Vv<i.)
Nickel Coins
1 piastre
(kirsh sagh;
ca. 2%d.)
'/z piastre
(kirsh ta'rifa;
ca. Id!.)
2 milliemes 1 millieme (ca. 1/2(^.1 (ca. 'A(i.)
On the reverse of all the coins is the name of the sultan in ornamental floarisbes.
3. Conveyanceg. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xvii
(p. 418), but the amount is refunded if the article is re-exported within a year, on production of the customs receipt (certifloat dii payement de droits en depot). The duty is paid at the port of entry or in the Bonded Warehouse in Cairo. In case of difficulty or dis- pute one of the higher officials should be appealed to.
Oood, though somewhat expensive, cigars may be obtained in Cairo and Alexandria. The importation of one's own cigars is attended with so much trouble as hardly to be worthwhile. The traveller is recommended to content himself with cigarettes (comp. p. 41). Tobacco (Ditkhkh&n) should be purchased in small quantities only, as it gets dry very soon.
(3). Conveyances.
Steamers. The necessary information about the steamer-lines between Europe and Egypt is given at pp. 1-6. For the Nile steamers to Upper Egypt, see p. 201 ; to Lower Nubia, seep. 383; in the Sudan, see p. 417.
Bailways. The official time-tables are published in the Indi- cateurdes Chemins de Fer de tEgypte, which is sold for 10 mill, at the chief railway stations, at the Cairo central telegraph office, and at the booksellers'. Time-tables are exhibited also in the larger hotels. Tlie railway-carriages resemble those of France or Italy. First-class passengers are permitted to take a reasonable qiiantity of small lug- gage with them into the carriages. The second-class carriages arc comfortable enough for day-journeys on the main routes (Alexandria to Cairo, Cairo to Mansura, Cairo to Port Sa'id or Suez, Cairo to Assuan), especially by the express-trains 5 and their use effects a saving of 50 per cent in fares. But on branch-lines all travellers should take flrst-class tickets, especially at night. The third-class carriages are quite unsuited for Europeans.
The trains are not much slower than in Europe and are very punctual. The traveller should be at the station in good time, espe- cially as heavy luggage must be booked '/4 hr. before tho departure of the train. The luggage-tariff is somewhat complicated. Hand- luggage up to 55 lbs. is free. The cloak-room charge is 5 milliemes each package per day. Passenger- fares are calculated on a zone- system, applicable to both express and slow trains (Istcl. 5 mill, per kilomfitre up to 50 kil.; 51-100 kil., 41/2 mill- per kil.; above 250 kil., 21/2 mill- )• Passenger-tickets are printed in French and Arabic; luggage-tickets in Arabic only. A reduced tariff and cheap return-tickets are in use on the lAgnes de Banlieue or suburban lines (between Cairo, Kalyub, and the Barrage dn Nil; between Cairo, Matariyeh, and El-Marg; between Suez and Suez Docks; between Alexandria, Ramleh, and Abukir). Return-tickets at a re- duction of 5 per cent on the double fare are issued to and from the larger stations, but are valid for 4 days only. — In hot weather the dust, which penetrates the carriages even when the windows are closed, renders railway travelling in Egypt exceedingly unpleasant. At the chief stations on the express-routes there are RaUivay Buffets
IUkoekkr's Egypt. 7th Kdit. '5
xviii I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 4. HnteU.
(no hot viands). At other stations refreshments are bronght to the carriage-windows (bargaining necessary ; 2 oranges Y2 pi^s.). The water offered for sale should be abstained from. In most of the express-trains there are dining-cars (B. lO, lunch 20, 0.25 pias.).
Narrow Gauge Railways. The Egyptian Light Bailways cover the Delta and the Faiyum (p. 190} with a network of lines, which, though of little importance to the ordinary tourist, enable the busi- ness man, the explorer, and the specialist to reach various remote points with comparative ease.
The Cabs (sing. 'araMyeK) in the large towns are generally very good. The official tariffs are exhibited in the vehicles and are ad- vertised in the 'Indicateur des Chemins de Fer' (see p. xvii). At Alexandria and Cairo there are also Taximeter Cabs and Taximeter Motor Cabs. The latter are not adapted for drives outside the city except on good roads. The cab-drivers (comp. pp. xxiv, 39) are unable to read the names of the streets, while many of them know the various points only by names of their own. The hotel-portier should therefore be employed as interpreter. The traveller should keep his eye on the direction taken by the cab, as sometimes the cabman drives straight ahead in complete ignorance of the way and requires to be guided, e.g. by being touched with a stick on the right or left arm according to the turning, or with the words yemtnak (to the right), shimulak (to the left), dughri (straight on). The cabs usually drive rapidly, so that their use saves time and strength.
Bonkeys (sing. Aomar) are found everywhere. The better ones belong to a finer race than the European breed. In Alexandria and Cairo they are, however, not used by Europeans for riding within the town. In the towns the donkeys are generally well bridled and saddled; side-saddles are not always obtainable, and when they are an extra charge of 5 pias. is sometimes made for them. The pro- clivities of the donkey-boys for prodding the animals with pointed sticks and urging them to gallop should be sternly repressed. When a slower pace is desired the rider shouts 'ala mahlak or 'ala mahla- kum ; if a quicker pace is wanted, yallah, yallah, or mashsht, or suk el-homdr; if a halt is to be made, 'andak, hush^ or the English word 'stop' (comp. p. xxiv).
(4). Hotels. In Cairo and its environs and at Luxor and Assuan (comp. pp. xxi, xxii) there are hotels quite of the first class, though perhaps not equal to the most modern establishments in Europe and America. There are good hotels also at Alexandria, Port Sa'ld, and a few other places. They are managed according to international methods; the waiters and chamber-maids are chiefly German or Swiss, while the 'boots' are generally Nubians (Barabra) who in most cases under- stand one or several European languages. As on the American system a fixed sum daily is paid for lodging and board, the latter
5. Post Office. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xi\
consisting of breakfast, luncheon, and dinner. Wine, beer, and other liquors, which are extras, are dear, the cheapest wine cost- ing 10-15 pias. per bottle and British and German beer 5-6 pias. The waiter's fee should be calculated at about 0 per cent of the bill. At Pbnsioxs the average charge is 30-50 pias. per day, or £E 7-10 per month. The hotel-laundries are somewhat expeusive (tariff at the hotels); the Arab 'washermen' are very good and mucli cheaper. In other towns the hotels are much inferior. They are mostly kept by Greeks, some (in the Delta) by Italians; the charge for a night's lodging is 8-10 pias. A cafe' or bar is frequently connected with the 'hotel' but no restaurant, so that meals have to be taken in a neighbouring eating-house.
(5). Post and Telegraph Offices.
The Egyptian Postal System (pp. 10, 37) is well organized not only in all the principal towns but also in the smaller towns of tlie Delta and Upper Egypt. The addresses of letters destined for Kgypt should always be written very distinctly, particularly the initial letters. They had better be directed to the hotel at which the traveller intends to stay, or they may be sent to the head post- office (Post Office, Poste Kestaute) in Cairo, in which case the traveller should inform the officials at the Bureau de Reuseigue- nients by letter of his local address, and his letters will be for- warded thither. On leaving for Upper Egypt travellers shouM notify the postal authorities at Cairo, so that letters may be punc- tually forwarded; passengers by the Nile steamers may have their correspondence looked after by the steamboat- company. — Rt- gistered Letters are not delivered to the addressee unless he has a passport or gets a resident or the consular kavass (p. xx) to testify to liis identity. Registration fee 5, for foreign countries 10 milliemes. Tiio Postage for letters not more than 30 grammes in weight within a town is 3 mil!., within Egypt 5 mill.; letters not exceeding 20 grammes to Great Britain and its colonies and to Italy 5 mill., to other countries in the Postal Union 10 mill. ; domestic Post Cards 2 mill., foreign 4 mill. — Parcels not exceeding 11 lbs. in weight may be sent to the countries of the Union, and must be accompanied by two declarations (in English or French). An export duty of 1 per cent ad valorem is charged on parcels of more than £ E 1 in value. Parcels not exceeding 3 lbs. may be sent from England via P. & O. steamer for Is., from 3 lbs. to 7 lbs. Is. Dd., from 7 lbs. to 11 lbs. 2s. Gd. ; via France and Italy the rates are 2s., 2s. Qd.. os. "Within Egypt parcels under 2V5 lbs. cost 20 mill., under 68/5 lbs. 30 mill., up to 11 lbs. 40 mill. — Money Orders up to 40i. may be sent to Egypt from most European countries. In Groat Britain they are issued at the following rates : for sums not exceeding 2l., Gd.-, Gi., 1«. ; iOl.jia.Gd. The rate of exchange is taken into account. Within
b*
XX I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION, ft. Consulates.
Egypt money orders cost 3 mill, per £ E 1 (up to £ E 100), to the Sfldan 5 mill, (minimum in either case 10 mill.). — Further par- ticulars will be found in the official Guide Postal Egyptien, obtain- able at any post-office for 30 mill., in the Indicateur des Chemins de Fer (p. xvii), or in the Government Almanac (p. xcv).
Telegrams. There are two telegraph - systems in Egypt, the Egyptian and the English. Messages within Egypt may be sent only by the former, which has over 300 stations, of which at least 30 are open day and night. The tariff is 20 mill, for 8 words or less, and 5 mill, for every two additional words. The charge for urgent tele- grams is three times as much. Telegrams may be sent in any Euro- pean language , except from the smaller stations , where Arabic messages only are accepted. — Telegrams to Europe and America should be sent by the English Eastern Telegraph Co., via Malta and Vigo. To Europe each word (not exceeding ten letters ; if longer, it counts as two words) costs 48 mill, from Lower Egypt, 58 mill, from Upper Egypt, 63 mill, from the Sudan. — A telegram from Great Britain to Alexandria costs Is. per word; to other parts of Egypt Is., 1?. lei., Is. 4d. — Further particulars will be found in the Telegraph Guide (2 pias.), which may be had at the office of the government telegraph system in Cairo.
Telephones. There are exchanges in most of the larger towns, and at Cairo and Alexandria there are public call-offices also. Charge for 3 min. conversation 50 mill., 6 min. 100 mill.
(6). Public Safety. Consulates. Courts of Justice.
Public Safety. The authority of the Khedive is so well estab- lished throughout Egypt that travellers are as safe as in Europe. Weapons for self-defence are an unnecessary encumbrance. — For information concerning firearms and ammunition, see p. 418.
Consulates. Consuls in the East enjoy the same privilege of exterritoriality as ambassadors in other countries. On public occa- sions they are attended by kavasses, or armed consular officers. A distinction is sometimes made between professional ('consulesmissi') and commercial consuls ; and there are consuls, vice-consuls, and consular agents, possessing various degrees of authority. In Egypt the diplomatic representatives of the powers are known as consuls- general. In all cases of emergency the traveller should apply for advice to the nearest consul of his country.
There are no consuls within the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (p. 415).
Courts of Justice. In place of the exclusive consular juris- diction to which foreigners were formerly liable, a system oi Mixed Tribunals was established in 1875. The judges consist of natives and foreigners (the latter generally appointed by the Khedive from qualified officials nominated by the Great Powers), who give their verdicts in accordance with Egyptian law, founded on that of France
7. Health Resorts. 1. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. vxi
and Italy. Even cases in which the Khedive himself and the Egyp- tian government are concerned are tried before this tribunal, which includes courts of first and second instance. The courts of the first instance are at Cairo, Alexandria, and Mansura, and there is a dele- gation at Port Sa'id. The appeal-court is at Alexandria. Lists of qualified barristers are exhibited in the anterooms of the courts. — Important civil cases between natives, and all criminal cases, are tried by the Native Courts (Central Tribunals), established in 1883, situated at Cairo, Alexandria, Benisueif, Assiiit, Keneh, Tanta, and Zakazik. These form also the tribunals of second instance for the petty misdemeanours and civil suits dealt with by the Summary Tribunals (47 in number). In addition there are 108 District Courts (Markaz Tribunals), which deal with civil actions and with criminal cases not involving more than 3 months' imprisonment or a fine of more than £E 10. The appeal-court for important cases is at Cairo (at the Bab el-Khalk); about half the number of its judges are Euro- peans. The procedure is based upon the Code Napole'on.
(7). Egypt as a Health Resort. Medical Hints.
Tip Leigh Canneii, M. I). (Land.), F. R. Met. Soc.
The beneficial influence of the climate of Egypt (coinp. p. Lxxvi) lias been known since the Roman period at least, and of late years an increasing number of visitors have flocked to the Nile to enjoy the benefits of its remarkably dry winter-climate. Phthisis (if not too far advanced and if the patient has a sound heart and little or 110 fever), asthma, chronic bronchitis, Bright's disease, rheumatoid arthritis:, gout, and diseases of the kidneys are some of the most important ailments that are at least alleviated by a visit to Egypt. Invalids should remember that a stay of a few weeks only is not sufficient, and should remain from the beginning of November to the end of March. In deciding which of the health-resorts in Egypt a given case should be sent to, the physician must of course consider whether or not warmth must be secured along with dryness of air, whether purity of air alone or also a bright stimulating climate is to be specially sought, and whether cold winds and blowing sand are harmful or not. It is advisable in all cases to secure the advice of the physician resident at the spot selected.
Cairo itself cannot properly be considered a health-resort. The presence of a large city with its noise and bustle, the higher rela- tive humidity, owing to the N. wind and the neighbourhood of the Delta, and other causes, all combine to compel those who seek health from the climate of Egypt to look to other stations. There are, how- ever, excellent health-resorts in the immediate vicinity of the capi- tal, such as the Mena House Hotel, the Oasis of New Heliopolis, and Helwan. Luxor and (still better) AssuCin, in Upper Egypt, offer still more favourable climatic conditions.
xxii I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 7. Health Rcforts.
Mena House Hotel (p. 36), 8 M. to the W. of Cairo, stands near the Great Pyramid of Gizeh , on the verge of the Libyan Desert. The mean maximum temperature is 69° Fahr. in Dec, 66° in Jan., 72° in Feb., 74° in March, and 80° in April. The mean minimum for the four months Dec. to March is 50°. The daily range of tem- perature is 21°. The relative humidity (i.e. the amount of moisture, in relation to the temperature at the time, that the air holds out of a possible 100 per cent) from Dec. to March is 58 per cent by day (8 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and 80 per cent at night (8 p.m. to 0 a.m.). Dew falls in -winter on about two nights out of three. At both Mena House and Helwan the prevailing winds and the amount of rain are probably much the same as in Cairo. The purity of the air at both places is marked ; the medical and sanitary arrangements are ex- cellent. — The Oasis of New Heliopolis (p. 119), founded as a health- resort a few years ago, possesses similar advantages.
Helwan (p. 167), 17 M. to the S. of Cairo and 3 M. from the cultivated land, is 115 ft. above the river. The mean maximum temperature is 70° in Dec, 67° in Jan., 73° in Feb., and 76° in March. The mean minimum for these four months is 50°. The daily range of temperature is here also 21°. The relative humidity from Dec. to March is 47 per cent by day, 66 per cent at night. — Helwan has the advantage "f being in the desert in a pure atmosphere. It also has warm^ )hurated and saline springs, richer in natural constituents thar ' corresponding springs at Aix-les-Bains, Harro- gate, Buxton, L The cases suitable for the baths here are such as would derive , .eflt from hydro-therapeutic treatment as carried on at Harrogate, ^ath, Aix, etc.; of late years Helwan has been especially recommended to sufferers from kidney- diseases, and suitable diet is provided at all the hotels and pensions.
Luxor (p. 251) is situated about 400 M. to the S. of Cairo, in the Theban plain on the right bank of the river. The prevailing winds are N.W. and N., as in the whole country. The mean maxi- mum temperature is 76° in Dec, 74° in Jan., 78° in Feb., and 85" in March. The mean minimum for these four months is 50°. The relative humidity is 41 per cent by 'day, 64 per cent at night. — In addition to the advantage of its warm and dry climate Luxor has an almost inexhaustible interest in its numerous antiquities, temples, and tombs. — The temperature is 7-9° warmer than at Mena House and Helwan. The importance of the extra warmth of Upper Egypt must not be lost sight of, in cases where it is imperative that the action of the skin should be at its highest level — especially as with this warmth a bracing effect is obtained from the dryness of the air.
Assudn (p. 353), situated at the First Cataract, also on the right bank of the river, is the dryest of the Egyptian liealtTi-xesorts and may be specially recommended in winter, when N. Egypt is often decidedly chilly. The prevailing winds are, as at Luxor, N.W. and N. in winter. The mean maximum temperature is 78° in Dec, 74^/2°
7. Medical Hints. 1. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xxiii
ill Jan., 82" in Feb., and 91" in March. The mean minimum lor these four months is 55°; and the relative humidity is 35 per cent by day, 49 per cent at night. — Assuan is more under the immediate influence of the desert; the air is bracing, although about 5" warmer than at Luxor. The beauty of the surroundings lends a peculiar charm to Assuan. — The accomii;odation for invalids is very good.
Patients should not leave Upper Egypt until the middle of April, ou account of the cold N. wind. They will find at Athens, Corfu, Sicily, and Capri and other points near Naples admirable transition- stations in spring.
Medical Hints. Re vaccination is a safeguard to travellers in I'-gypt , if not already performed within six years. Special care -should be taken to avoid eye-trouble, and it is inadvisable to allow one's field-glass to be used by strangers, especially natives, for fear of infection. Those, too, who come into contact with natives should avoid rubbing their eyes with their hands. A useful precaution is to bathe the eyes regularly with boracic acid lotion (3 per cent), especially on dusty days or after excursions. Visitors to Upper Egypt should have spectacles with grey glasses. — Against sunstroke, which, however, is rare in the winter months, the best protection is afforded by broad-brimmed hats , sunshades, or cloths tied round the hat so as to fall down over the back of the neck. A pith helmet with a large flap to protect the neck may be recommended also. The remedies for headache resulting from { 'Stroke are rest and shade; the clothing should at once be loos "v^V and cold appli- cations made to the head and neck. ■ '^'^
Colds are frequently followed by fever or bf i/iarrhu;a, which is apt to develop into dysentery. Cold or iced drii - shbuld be avoided, also unpeeled fruit and green salads. Water and milk should never be drunk unboiled, for fear of typhoid. In cases of diarrhoea meat should be avoided and a simple farinaceous diet adopted ; the bev- erages should be milk and soda-water. There are European doctors at Cairo, Alexandria, Helvvan, Luxor, Assuan, etc., also on board most of the tourist-steamers.
Sprains are most effectually treated with cold compresses, while the injured limb should be tightly bandaged. — The sting of a scorpion is relieved by immediately applying ammonia ; strong doses of alcohol may be administered internally.
Travellers should be careful to pay attention to the daily changes of temperature (^p. Ixxvii), particularly at sunset in cultivated dis- tricts, when the air cools very quickly and colds are easily caught. Warmer clothing or a cloak is useful till 11 a.m., then lighter clothing till nearly sunset, when the cloak should be resumed. The hour for returning to the hotel varies with the place and the month, being earliest in Jan. and latest in March and April. If the traveller be guided by the relative humidity, it would be earliest at Mena House, say about sunset; a little later at lielwan; at Luxor still
xxiv I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 8. Native Manners.
later, 6 p.m. (except in Jan.), and 8 p.m. in March; and latest of all at Assuan, — it being always understood that precautions as to extra clothing have been taken. — Those who are not invalids, and in some cases invalids also, may sleep with the windows open with safety. Those who wish to take a small Medicine Chest with them, a pro- ceeding strongly recommended to anyone making long independent ex- cursions, should consult their physician at home as to the best medi- caments with which to stock it. The following suggestions may, however, be useful: for fever. Quinine in pills or something of that nature; for chronic constipation, castor-oil; for diarrhoea (or dysentery), first an aper- ient then Bismuth (in cachets); for inflammation of the eyes, an Eye Lotion (made from a doctor's prescription) and a glass for dropping it in; for stings, Ammonia; for external injuries, Cotton Wool for bandaging. Subli- mate Paiiilles and Iodoform as disinfectants, and Collodion.
(8). Intercourse with Orientals. Dragomans.
The average Oriental regards the European traveller as a CrtBsus, therefore as fair game, and feels justified in pressing upon him with a perpetual demand for bakshish (bakshish), which simply means 'a gift'. The number of beggars is enormous, but they arc not nearly so importunate as those in Italy and elsewhere. Travellers are often tempted to give for the sake of affording temporary pleasure at a trifling cost, forgetting that the seeds of insatiable cupidity are thereby sown, to the infinite annoyance of their successors and the demoralization of the recipients themselves. Bakshish should never be given except for services rendered, or to the aged and crippled 5 and the Government appeals to the tourist by public placards not to encourage the habit of begging. A beggar may be silenced with the words 'al Allah or Allah yehannin 'aleik (God have mercy on thee!) or Allah ya'tik (may God give thee! J. The best reply for more importunate cases is md fish, md fish (I have nothing for you) or mafish bakshish (there is no present), which will generally have the effect of dispersing the assailants for a time.
It is, of course, inevitable that coachmen, guides, donkey-boys, and the like should expect a gratuity in addition to the stipulated fee for their services, and the traveller should therefore take care to be amply supplied with small Change at all times, and especially with pieces of half a piastre (comp. pp. xv, 37). Payment should never be made until the service stipulated for has been rendered, after which an absolutely deaf ear should be turned to the pro- testations and entreaties which almost invariably follow. Even when an express bargain has been made, and more than the stipulated sum paid, they are almost sure to pester the traveller in the way indicated. When no bargain has been made, the fees and prices mentioned in the Handbook, all of which are ample, should be paid without remark ; and if the attacks which ensue are not silenced by an air of calm indifference the traveller may use the word ruh or imshi (be off!) or uskut (be quiet!) in a quiet but decided and im-
6'. Drayoinam. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xxv
perative tone. At the same time it must be admitted that the in- creasing number of visitors to Egypt tends to raise prices during the chief travelling season, so that a larger bakshish than is men- tioned in the Handbook may sometimes be necessary.
While much caution and firmness are desirahle in dealing with the people, it need hardly be added that the traveller should avoid being too exacting or suspicious. He should hear in mind that many of the natives with whom he comes in contact are mere children, whose demands should excite amusement rather than anger, and who often display a touching simplicity and kindliness of disposition. The native communities hold together with remark- able faithfulness, and the hond of a common religion, which takes the place of 'party' in other countries, and reijuires its adherents to address each other as 'i/« akhiiya (my brother), is far more than a mere name. On the other hand, intimate acquaintance with Orien- tals is to be avoided, especially with the dragomans, who sometimes presume on their opportunities of social intercourse (comp. below). In Lower Egypt travellers can usually make themseWes understood in French or Italian; in Upper Egypt English is more useful. A good deal can usually he done by signs.
Notwithstanding all the suggestions we have ventured to offer, the traveller will to some extent have to buy his experience, in most cases the overcharges to which he will he exposed will be comparatively trifling; hut if extortion is attempted on a larger scale he had better refer the matter to his consul or the police.
For the tours described in this book the services of a Dragoman ( Arab. Turguman) may easily be disj)cnsed with, even by those less accustomed to travelling. They are useful, however, for those who wish to see as much as possible in a very short time. Only well recommended dragomans should be engaged, preferably those for whom the hotels assume some responsibility. They must be treated from the lirst as servants and all familiarity should be discouraged. The dragomans arc with few exceptions quite uneducated, without the least knowledge of the historic or a'sthetic significance of tlie monuments; and their 'explanations' of them are only too often merely garbled versions df what they have picked up from guide- books or from the remarks of previous travellers.
Those who wish to make long tours in the desert or hunting excursions are advised to consult residents learned in these matters. The tourist-agents also can sometimes give good advice, and the necessary outfit (tents, kitchen utensils, etc.) may be bought or hired through them. — For sporting and other expeditions in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, see pp. 417, 418.
On the successful terminatiun of the journey travellers are tuo apt from motives of good nature to write a more favourable testimonial for their dragoman than he really deserves; but this is truly an act of in- justice to his subsequent employers. The testimonial therefore should not omit to mention any serious c;iusc lor dissatisfaction.
xx.vi I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 9. Arabian Cafes.
(^9). Arabian Cafes. Story Tellers. Musicians. Singers- Shadow Flays. Baths.
Arabian Cafes (sing, kahwa) are frequeuted by the lower classes almost exclusively. The front consists of woodwork with a few open arches. Outside the door generally runs a mastaba, or raised seat of stone or brick, covered with mats, and there are similar seats in the interior. Coffee is served by the kaliwagi at 1/4-I pias. per cup (fingdn), and several nargUeU or shhheh and gozeh (water-pipes) are kept in readiness for the use of customers. The tumbdk (Per- sian tobacco) smoked in the gozeh is sometimes mixed with the intoxicating hashhh (hemp, Cannabis Indica), which has an un- mistakable smell. The importation and sale of hashish are prohi- bited in Egypt ; it is therefore smuggled in in the most artful ways.
Story Tellers (who in private domestic circles are generally women) are still a characteristic oriental institution. Wherever they make their appearance, whether in the public streets or the coffee-house, in the densely peopled alleys of the large towns or in the smallest country-villages, they are sure to attract an attentive, easily pleased, and exceedingly grateful crowd. The more sensational the tale, the better, and the oftener is tlie narrator applauded with protracted cries of 'Aah', or 'Allah', or 'Allahu akbar!'. — Most of the story-tellers belong to the so-called Shu'ara (sing. Sha'ir), literally 'singers'. They are known also as 'Andtireh (sing. 'Antari) or Abu Zeidtyeh, according as their theme consists of tales and romances from the history of 'Antar, a Beduin hero, or from that of Abu Zeid. Others again are called Mihadditdti, i.e. narrators of history, their province being the recital in prose of passages from the history of Sultan Beybars (p. cxvii) and other historical heroes. The entertainments of the 'ai/' leileh u leileh! (thousand and one nights) are, however, no longer heard, as popular superstition has branded this collection of tales as 'unlucky'. The themes of the whole fraternity are too often of an immoral character.
Mnsicians by profession, called Aldttyeh (sing. Aldti), are in- dispensable on every festive occasion. The usual instruments are the rlkk or tambourine with little bells, the nakkdreh or semi- spherical tambourine, the zemr or hautbois, the tabl beledi or drum, the tabl shdmi or kettle-drum , and the darabukeh , a kind of funnel-shaped drum (generally made of earthenware, but some- times of wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl and tortoise-shell, with a flsh-skin stretched over the broad end), which last is accompanied by the zummdra, a kind of double flute. A better class of instru- ments, used for chamber music, includes the ndi, a kind of flute, the kemengeh or two-stringed violin, the body of which consists of a cocoa nut shell, the rebdbeh, or one-stringed violin with a square wooden body, the kdnun, a kind of zither with strings of sheep-gut, and astly the 'ud, the lute or mandoline, the oldest of all the instruments.
9. Baths. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. xxvii
The Egyptians consider themselves a highly masic&l jieopie. The Kgyptian sings when indulging in his keif (i.e. dolce far niente), whether sitting on his heels or stretched out on his mat, when driving his donkey, when carrying stones and mortar up a scafiblding, when working in the iiclds, when at the sakiyeh, and when rowing. He sings whether alone iir in Company, regarding his vocal music as a means of lightening his labour and of sweetening his repose. A peculiarity of the Egyptian songs, however, is that they have no tune, though they have a certain rhythm, which is always dependent on the text. They are sang through the nose on seven or eight different notes, on which the performer wanders up and down. The character of this so-called music is exceedingly monotonous and, to a European ear, displeasing. The songs (maicicdl or shughl) are generally of a lyrical, religious, or erotic description, though some of them extol the pleasures of friendship and rational enjoyment, or express derision of an enemy, or contempt fnr the rustic fellah. — Comp. 'The Songs of an Egyptian Peasant', by E. Sehdfer (English edition, Leipzig, 1904).
Female SiNGBES {'Awalim, sing. 'Almeh; i.e. 'learned women') of a good class are now very rare and perform only in the liarems of wealthy natives. — Good Female Dancers, or Ghawdzi (sing. Ghdityeli), were formerly one of the chief curiosities of Egypt, but are now rare ; the performances in the cafes chantants in Cairo are very inferior. — The Snake Chabmees {Rifa'iyeh, sing. Rifa'i ; p. xci) exhibit performances of a very marvellous character, as credible European residents in Cairo have testified; but the trav- eller will rarely come in contact with them except by lucky ac- cident. The men and boys who exhibit small snakes in the streets or at the hotels must of course not be confounded with the Ixii'a'iyeh. — The JuGGLEEs oxF!uwd (sing. Hawi) of Egypt are similar to those of other countries. — Tlie performances of the Buffoons (Kurudati or Mohabhazi) are disgracefully indelicate.
Shadow Plays (Khdiyal ed-Dill)^ formerly among the most pop- ular spectacles in Egypt, the history of which can be traced back to the 13th cent., are still to be met with, though seldom, in the larger towns, especially Cairo (comp. p. 42) and Alexandria.
The Khaiyal man, with his little stage of wood and canvas, may be seen at the 'mulids' (comp. pp. xcv, xcvi), important weddings, and in a tew cafes. The plays, of which the most frequently performed ave tlie Comedy of the Convent (Ifb ed-deir) and the Comedy of the Ship (Ifb el- markib), are rather coarse, or even slightly indecent, farces in arliflcial and long-winded verse. The figures are cut out of coloured translucent leather and, by means of small wooden sticks, are pressed against an illu- minated cloth in front of the stage, so that their shadows are visible on the other side of the cloth. The entertainer, generally supported by several assistants and musicians, recites the text of the play while moving the figures about by means of the sticks.
Arab Baths. Tlie baths of Egypt, with their hot-air chambers, are those commonly known as Turkish, but they are neither so clean nor so well fitted up as some of those in the larger cities of Europe. They are therefore seldom visited by Europeans. Those who wish to try them once should do so early in the morning, and should avoid Fridays, as numerous Moslems bathe on that day, which is their Sabbath. When a cloth is hung up at the entrance to the baths, it indicates that women only are admitted.
xxvui I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
(iO). The Egyptian Dialect of Arabic.
£1/ Dr. Curt Friifer. The Translitekation of Arabic vocal sounds , so intensely difl'erent. from our own, in the ordinary Latin alphabet is rendered additionally difficult by the varied international relations of Egypt. In maps and plans, in railway time-tables, and in other publications we find the transliteration ditfering widely according as the French or the English view has been adopted. In this Handbook we have transliterated the consonantal sounds so far as possible according to English usage (e.g., sh instead of the French ch). The pronunciation of the vowels and diphthongs is as follows: d as a in father, a usually as a in final; e as e in belong or as a in final; eh at the end of a word as a in final; i as ee in been, i as i in did, final i as ee iu been; i!! as o in bone, o as 0 in on; «2 as 00 in fool, « as « in full; ai as i in ice; cm as ow in owl; ei as a in lane; oi as oy in boy. Thus: emir, which is pronounced 'emeer' ; fultJs-, pronounced 'fulloos' ; sheikh, pronounced 'shake' (with a guttural k), etc. — The I of the article is frequently unassimilated; e.g. el-rds instead of er-rds (comp. p. xxx).
Arabic belongs to the Semitic group of languages and has no relationship with the tongues of Europe. The classic language of the Koran is still regarded as the unrivalled model of literary Arabic, but side by side with it there have developed various colloquial dialects, differing widely among themselves, of which that spoken in Egypt is one. In the following brief sketch references to the classic literary language are avoided as far as possible; for that, re- course must be had to the accepted grammars (see p. clxxxviii). Even in Egypt there are variations in the dialects spoken, but the following remarks apply especially to the language as spoken in Cairo, which is generally undeistood throughout the country.
On p. xxix we give the Arabic Alphabet, with the sounds corresponding to the different letters so far as it is possible to re- present or describe them to the English reader. — Arab writing runs from right to left. Long vowels are indicated by the letters Elif, Wan, and Yei (comp. p. xxix), while short vowels are often left out altogether or represented by special signs placed above or below the consonants.
(^)uANTiTY AND ACCENTUATION OP VoAVELS. Vowels with a cir- cumflex accent ('^} are long; other vowels are short. The accent falls on the last syllable when that contains a long vowel or a short vowel followed by two consonants. It falls on the penultimate (1) when that is long, (2) when it ends in a single consonant, and (3) when the preceding syllable is long or ends in a single consonant. In all other cases the accent falls on the antepenultimate. Diph- thongs (ai, ei, au) must be reckoned as equivalent to long vowels.
The pronunciation of short vowels varies considerably according to the consonants adjoining as well as according to the culture of the speakers; eg. for iiiUa (when), emteh also occurs, for yiktub (he writes), yiktib, for 'ariisa (bride), 'ar&seh.
Grammatical Hints. Pkonouns. ana, I int7, thou (fem.)
inta, thou (masc.) hUxva, he
Language. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
ElifjAlef
|
% |
Ba |
|
3. |
Ta |
|
4. |
Tha |
|
5. |
Gim |
|
G. |
m |
|
7. |
Kha |
|
8. |
Dal |
|
9. |
Dhal |
|
10. |
Rei |
|
11. |
Zei |
|
12. |
Siu |
|
13. |
Shin |
|
14. |
Sad |
|
15. |
Dad |
|
IG. |
Ta |
|
17. |
Za |
|
18. |
'Ain |
|
19. |
Gbaiu |
|
20. |
Fei |
|
21. |
1 Kaf |
|
22. |
Kaf |
|
23. |
Lara |
|
24. |
Mim |
|
21"). |
Nun |
|
26. |
Hei |
|
27. |
Wan |
|
28. |
Yei |
Arabic ALniABEX
Z
e t
us
^^
r o
8
b
t
t, 3 %
h
kh
d
d,z
r
z
s
sh
s
d
t
z
c
f k k 1
m n h w
y
like the Greek soft breathing, accompanies an initial vowel, and is not pronounced except as a hiatus in the middle of a word. It is also the sign for d.
(word. It 18 as in English.
originally as Ih in 'thing', but now pro- noanced ( or *.
in Syria and Arabia like the French j (some- times also like the English j\ bnt pro- nounced g (hard) in Egypt.
a peculiar guttural ft, pronounced with em- phasis at the back of the palate.
like ch in the Scotch word 'loch', or the harsh Swiss-German cU.
as in English.
originally as Ih in 'the', but now pronounced
d or z. like the French or Itnlian v.
as in English.
emphasized », like si in 'hi.^s'.
!both emphasized by pressing the tongue firmly against the palate.
an emphatic 2, now pronounced like No. U
or No. 15. a harsh and very peculiar guttural, a guttural resembling the Northumbrian or
Parisian r.
as in English.
pronounced by Syrians and by the natives of Lower Egypt (particularly by the Cairenes) in the same way as Elif (see above), but in Upper Egypt as g (No. ;')).
I as in English.
as in English. Also the sign for iJ, 6^ aud cm. as in Knglish. Also the sign for f, a», and ti.
XXX I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. W. Arahic
hlya, she inium, ye or you
ihna, we hum, they
The possessive pronouns are indicated hy suffixes, added to nouns, verbs, or prepositions.
my, mine = -? (after a final vowel -ya, after verbs -n?)
thine (masc.) = -dk (after a final vowel -fc) ; thine (fern.) = -ik (after a final vowel -ki)
his = -uh (after a final vowel -li); her = -lid
OUT ::= -nd
your = -kum
their = -hum
In the case of most feminine nouns ending in a or e (eh) a t is inserted before the suffix. When otherwise three consonants would come together a short vowel is inserted between the stem and the suffix. Examples: kalbl, my dog; kurs'ya, my chair; kalbina, our dog; shagaratkum, your tree; darabnt, he struck me; misiktuhum, thou tookest them; 'andi^ beside me, i.e. 1 have ; 'andak, beside thee, i.e. thou hast; 'aleikum, over you.
rnTn, who? lei, why?
ei, what? iza'iy, how?
enhu, which? (masc.) Hit, which (relative)
enW, which? (fem.) ii or c7a, this (masc.) \
enhum, which? (pi.) dJ, di, this (fern.) placed after
kdin, how much? dol, these the noun and
fein, where? whither? duk-ha, that its article
min ein, whence ? duk-hamma, those
imta, when? kuU, each, all
Article. El is the definite article for all genders and all num- bers. Before words beginning with t, d, r, s, s, sh, «, d, /, or n the I of the article is usually assimilated with such initial consonant; e.g. er-ruyil, the man. There is no indefinite article {el-mu'allim., the teacher, nm'allim, a teacher), but it is sometimes expressed by uneducated people through the numeral wdhid, fem. wahdeh, i.e. wnhid beit, n house.
Nouns. Most feminine nouns end in a or e (eh); el-mu'aUima, the female teacher. The regular plural is formed by adding 7n to the masculine stem, at to the feminine stem; el-mu' allimtn, the teachers, el-mu' allimdt, the female teachers. But there are num- erous irregular plurals that must be learned from the dictionary; e.g. heit^ house, hiydt, houses. The dual ends in ein for the masculine, tein for the feminine; kalbein, two dogs, kalbeteln, two she-dogs.
There is no regular declension of nouns. The genitive case is expressed by the juxtaposition of the two nouns, the former always without the article, or by the use of the auxiliary word bitd', bitu'et, plur. hitu' ; e.g. leit el-khawdga, or el-beit bita' el-khaivdga, the house of the European. The dative case is formed by the use of the preposition U (to); li 'l-khawdga, to the European. The accusative
Language. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
(objective) is the same as the nominative. The vocative case is yu khairdga, Sir I
Adjectives. Adjectives arc always placed after their nouns, with -which they generally agree in gender; e.g. gmeina krvaiyiseh, a heautiful garden , el-geneina el-knaiyiseh, the heautiful garden. The verb 'to be' is omitted in the present tense; el-geneina kirai- yi.<eh, the garden is beautiful.
Regular Verbs. The pure stem of regular verbs is seen in the 3rd person singular (masculine) of the perfect tense; kasar, he has broken. This part is given in dictionaries instead of the infinitive as in most other languages.
Perfect I broke or have broken, kasarl Thou brokest or hast -, kasart
(masc), kasarti (fem.) He broke or has broken, ka.iar
have
She We
Yoi - - - They - - - Imperatives :
Participles.
kasaret kasarnd kasartum kasaru
Present anu Future I break or shall break, aksar Thou breakest or wilt - , tiknar
(masc), tiksar7 (fern.) He breaks or will break, yiksar She - - - . ^ liksar We break or shall - , niksar You - - will - , tiksarH They - - - - , yihsard
Break (sing.), iksar (masc.), iksari (fem.). Break (plur.), iksaru.
Pres. Breaking, kanr; Perf. Broken, maksiir. So also: I have written, katabt I write, aktub
kataht, kalaht'i tiktub, lUclubt
katab, etc. yiktub, etc.
In the case of most verbs other tenses and moods are indicated by prefixing or interpolating letters; e.g. kasar, he has broken, m- kasar, he has been broken.
For irregular verbs the grammar (comp. p. clxxxviii) must be consulted.
To express a negative with verbs the separable form ynn . . . sh(i) is used, the verb being inserted in the middle (comp. Fr. ne . . . pas); e.g. mudarabah, he did not strike.
Numerals. 1(5) — wCihid^iQxa.wahdeh the first — el-auwal, fem. el-
autonleh or el-tlla
|
2(r)- |
itnein |
the second |
— tdni, fem. |
tuniyeh |
|
3(n- |
taldteh |
the third |
— tdlit. |
talteh |
|
4(f)- |
■ arba'a |
the fourth |
— rdbe'. |
rab'a |
|
5(o)- |
khamseh |
the fifth |
— khdmis, - |
khamseh |
|
6(1)- |
■ sitteh |
the sixth |
— sddis, |
sadseh |
|
7(v)- |
■ sab'a |
the seventli |
— sdbe\ |
.sab'a |
|
8(A)_ |
tamdnyeh |
the eighth |
— tdmin, |
tamneh |
|
9(1)- |
■ tis'a |
the ninth |
— tdse% |
tas'a |
|
10(1.)- |
- 'ashara |
the tenth |
— 'dshir, |
'anhreh |
XXXU
T. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
11 — haddshar
12 — itndshar
13 — telatdshar
14 — arbahtdshar
40 — arba'tn 50 — khamsin 60 — sittin 70 — sab'in
15 — khamastdshar 80 — tarmdnln 10 — sittdshar 90 — fts'Jn
600- 700. 800- 900. 1000 2000
suttemtyeh
sub'amlyeh
tumnemtyeh
tus^ army ell
alf
alfein,
17 — sabahtdshar 100 . — miyeh; before nonns, 3000 — telat aldf
18 — tamantdshar 200 — niitein
19 — tis'atdshar 300 — tultemtyeh
20 — 'ishrin 400 — rub'amlyeh 30 — taldttn 500 — khumsemtyeh once — marra wahda , marra, twice — marratein \ or r?66a thrice — teiai marrdt four times — ■ ar&a' marrdi five times — khamas marrdt a fifth six times — sittefe marrdt a sixth seven times — sabn,' marrdt a seventh eight times — taman marrdt an eighth nine times — tisa' marrdt a ninth ten times — 'ashar marrdt a tenth
Substantives following the numerals 2-10 are us^d in the plural, those following numerals above 10 in the singular; thus: leldia kildb , 3 dogs, but teldtin kalb, 30 dogs. Educated people generally employ the dual form of the noun instead of the numeral 2: kalbein, 2 dogs.
[?m«. 4000 — arbaht dldf 5000 — khamast dldf 100,000 — mtt alf 1,000,000 — malyun a half — nuss
a third — tult
a fourth — rub'
three-fonrths — talat irba'
— khums
— sudu
Stlb'
—T tumn
— tus'
— 'oshr
Arabic Vocabulary.
Above, fok.
Add, to, sad. Add a little more
(i.e. hid a little higher), %id
shivaiyeh. Address, 'unwdn. After, ba'd; afterwards, ba'dein. Afternoon, 'asr. Against, did. Air, hawd. All, el-kull, all people, kullen-nds
(lit. the total of the people). Almond, loz.
Always, ddiman or tamallt. America, Amerlka. American,
marakdni, malakdru, pi. mara-
kdn. Anchorage, roads, mirm. Angry, za'ldn. Do not be angry,
md tiz'alah. Apricots, mishmish.
Arabia, Bildd el- Arab. Arabian, rdgil 'arabl, pi. uldd el-arab.
Arabic, 'arabl. What is that called in Arabic? ismeh ei bil-arahl?
Arable land, tin.
Arm, dird'.
Arrive, wasal. When does tlie steamer arrive, el-wdbdr yusal imta? Arrival, imisitl.
Ask, to, sa'al.
At, 'and.
Aunt, 'amma (paternal aunt), khdla (maternal aunt).
Austria, Bildd en - Nimsn. Aus- trian, nimsdiv?.
Autumn, kharif.
Awaken, to, sahhd. Awake me, sahfunl.
Back, dahr.
Bad, battdl.
Vocabulary. 1. PKKLIMINARY INFOKMATION.
Baker, far run.
Bananas, rnoa.
Barber, hallak, mizeiyin.
Barley, »ha"ir.
Basket, kuffn, pi. kufuf.
Bath, bath-establishnieiit, ham-
mcitn. Bazaar, see Market. Be, to. The copula 'is' (are) is
not translated; comp. p. xxxi. Beans, fasCdya. Broad beans, ful.
Haricot beans, Idhiyeh. r.card, dakn. Full beard, lihyeh.
Moustache, shanab. Beat, to, darab. Beat him, idrabuh ! Beautiful, kwaiyis or gamll. Bed, ser'tr. Beduiu, hedawi, pi. bidu, 'arab,
'orbdn. Beduiu sheikh, sheikh
el-'arab. Bee, nahla, pi. nahl. Beer, btra. Before, kabl (time), kudddm
(place). Behind, ward. Below, taht. Bench (of stone or mud), maslaba,
pi. masdtib (also used for cer- tain kinds of tombs, p. clxviii). Beside, 'and, gamb. Better, ahsan, khcir. Between, bein. Bill, account, hitidb. Bird, teir, pi. tiyiir. Singing-bird,
'asfur, pi. 'asdfir. Bite, to, 'add. It (she) has bitten
me, 'addetru; it (she) will bite, Bitter, murr. [te'udd.
Black, isivid. Blacksmith, hadddd. Blind, a'ma. Blood, damm. Blue, azrak. Board, loh, pi. llwdh. Boat, feluku. Boil, to. The water is boiling, el-
maiyeh tighll. Boiled, maduk. BvuDiiKEK's Kgypf. 7th Kdit.
Book, kitdb, yl.kulub. I'mokseller, kutbl.
ISoot, gasma, pi. gkain.
Bottle, khdza, pi. kazdiz. Water- bottle, kulla, pi. kulal.
Box, sanduk^ pi. sanddlk.
Boy, walad, pi. uldd.
Brandy, 'arakt
Bread, 'eish. See also Loaf.
Break, to, kasar (tians.J; inkasar (intrans.). Broken, maksur.
Breakfast, futur.
Bride, 'arCtsa. Bridegroom, 'arh.
Bridge, kuhr1, kantara.
Bridle, ligdm.
Bring, to, gdb. Bring the eggs, gib
Broad, 'arid. [el-leid!
Brother, akh (before suffixes and genitives akhH, as akhUnd, our brother), pi. ikhwdn.
Brown, asmar or ahmar.
Bucket, gardal or satl^ pi. garddil, sutul.
Burn, to. The fire burns, en-ndr beyula'. The sun burns me, esh-shems (or es-sems) ylhrakni.
Bury, to, dafan. They have buried him, dafanuh. — Burial, dafna.
Butcher, gazzdr.
Butter, zlbdeh.
Button, zirr, pi. zirdr.
Buy, to. What dost thou wish to buy, 'duz tishtiri ei? Hast thou bought the eggs, inta ishtareit el-bdd? — See also p. 49.
Cab, 'arabiyeh. Cabman, 'arbugl. He is hailed with the ex- pression usta.
Cafe', see Coffee.
Cairo, Masr.
Calf, 'igl, pi. 'igul.
Call, to, nadah. Call the cook, indah ll't-tabbdkh.
Call, to = to name, see Name.
Camel, gamal (masc), pi. gimdl. Hiding camel, hegm. Camel- driver, yammdl.
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
Candle, sham'a, pi. shama'. Can- dlestick, sham'addn.
Cape (promontory), rds.
Care. Take care, khallt hdldk (of the luggage, min el-afsh), u'Ci.
Carpet, siggada; busat.
Carriage, 'arabiyeh (also a railway carriage).
Castle, kasr, pi. kusur; serdyeh, pi. serdydt.
Cattle, bakar.
Cause, sabab.
Cave, maghdra.
Cemetery, kardfa; yabdna; mad- fan; malcbara.
Chair, kursi, pi. kerdsi.
Change, to, mraf. Change me a soyeiBign, usruf It gineih. Hast thou changed the sovereign, inta saraft el-gineih?
Cheap, rakkis, pi. rukhds.
Cheese, gibna.
Cholera, hawa el-asfar or kuleira.
Christian, nusrdm, pi. nasdra.
Cigar, sigdra afrangi; zinobya.
Cigarette, sigdra, pi. sagdyir; cigarette paper, warak sigdra.
Class. 1st class (railway or steamer) berimo; 2nd class, sekondo.
Clean, nadif.
Clean, to, nadda/". Clean the room, naddaf el-dda. I have not cleaned the room yet, lissa md naddaftish el-oda.
Clear, hright, safl.
Clever (skilful), shdtir.
Clothes, libs; hudum. — The Arab costume includes: Fez, /ar&i2sA; skull-cap, tdkiyeh; felt cap, libdeh; head-shawl, kufftyeh; cord for fastening the kuffiyeh, 'ukal; turban, 'imma; trousers (wide), shirwdl; women's trou- sers, shintiydn; cloak, 'abdyeh; dressing-gown, kuftdn; long Mouse, galldMyeh; girdle.
hizdm ; leathern belt, kamar; shoe, markub; wooden shoe, kubkdb; stocking, shurdb. — See also Coat, Trousers.
Clumsy, ghasMm.
Coat (European man's), sitra, pi. sitar; badleh.
Coffee, kahwa. Boy, bring a cup of coffee, hdl fingdn kahwa, yd icalad. — Caf(?, kahwa, Cafe- keeper, kahwagl. Coffee-beans, bunn; coffee-pot, hakrag.
Cognac, kunydk.
Cold, bdrid, fem. barda. Cold (noun), bard. It is very cold early in the morning, fis-subh el-bardeh shedld. — To catch cold, khad bard. — I feel cold, ana barddn.
Collar, ydka.
Colour, Ion, pi. alwdn. Coloured mulauivin.
Come, to. I came (perf.), geit; he came, ga; she came, gat; we came, geind; they came, gd or gum. (In the pres. : agi, yiyu tig7, nigl, yigu.) Imper. : Come, ta'dla (masc), ta'dli (fem.), ta'dlu (plur.). Come here, ta'dla hineh (masc).
Concerning (prep.), 'ala (with suffixes).
Confectioner, halawdnu
Consul, konsul. Consulate, konsu- Idto. Consular guard, Kavass, Jcauwds.
Content, mabsut.
Convent, deir. Dervish convent, tekklyeh.
Cook, tabbdkh.
Cook, to. Cook me a fowl, uibukh- U farkha.
Cost, to. What does this cost, di bikdni?
Cotton, kutn.
Country (fatherland), watan.
Cow, hakara, pi. hakardt.
Vocabulary. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
Crofodile. tim.idh.
Cnp, fingdn. pi. fanaym.
Customs, gumruk.
Cut, to, kata'.
Dagger, khangar, pi. khandger.
Dance, rak;}.
Da.rk,'itini.Da.Yk-cii\o\ncd,ghdmik.
Dates, halah. Date-palm, nafc^/<»,
pi. nakhl(dt). Daughter, hint, pi. handt. Day, yoni or nahdr, pi. aiydm.
Daily, kulli yom or kulli nahdr.
By day, hin-nahdr. To-day, en-
nahdr-di. Yesterday, embdreh.
Day before yesterday, auiral
embdreh. Day after to-morrow,
ba'deh bukra. — Days of the
week, see Week. Dead, maiylt. Deaf, atrash. Dear, ghdll. That is very (too)
dear, di ghdll ketlr. Deceitful, kh'dn, hardm7. Deep, ghamlk or ghawU. Delicate, tender, rafT. Desert, gehel; khald. The Sahara,
es-Sahra. Dialect, laghweh. Diarrhoea, iahdl. Die, to, mdt. Difficult, m'b. Dinner, see Evening. Dirt, wasdkha or xvas-akh. Dirty,
loisikh. Dismount, to, nizil. We shall
dismount here, ninzil hineh.
Dismount (pi.), inzilit! District, bildd. Do, to, 'amal. He will do or he
does, ya'mil. Do not do it, ma
ta 'miliish.' Doctor, hakhn, pi. hukama. Dog, kalb, pi. kildb. Donkey, homdr, pl./ia/n/r. Don- key-boy ,s/iar7imur. Door, Gate, bdb, pi. blbdn. Doorkeeper, Concierge, hauwdb.
Dragoman, turgumdn (seep. xxv).
Drink, to, shirib. Pres. : aihrab, ti<hrab, etc. Drink coffee, i»'7tra/j kahira! Why dost thou drink nothing , 'ashshdn ei md bet- ishrabshi hag a?
Driver, see Cabman.
Dry, ndshif or ydbis.
Duck, batta, pi. batl.
Dyer, sobbdgh.
Each (noun), kulli wdlud; feui., kulli rrahdeh. Each man, hull insdn. Each town, kulli me-
Ear, widn. [dhieh.
Early, hadr'i.
Earth, ard.
East, shark. Eastern, sharkl.
Eat, to, akal. I ate or thou .itest, kalt. I wish to eat, biddt dkul. We wish to eat, biddind ndkul. Eat, kul!
Egg, beida, pi. beid. Boiled eggs, beid masldk. Baked eggs, beid makli.
Egypt, (bildd) masr. Egyptian, masTi.
Embankment, gisr.
Empty, fdd.7.
England, Bildd el-Inglh. Eng- lishman, inglizt.
Enough, kifdyeh ; has.i; bizyddeh.
Entrance, dukhul.
Envelope, zarf. pi. zurdf.
Europe, Bildd el-Afrang. Euro- pean, afrangt , pi. ferang, 0 frank.
Evening, 'ashiya; evening-meal (i.e. dinner) 'ashd.
Eye, 'ein; the eyes (dual), el- 'einein. My eyes, 'eineiya. Eye- drops (medicine), kaireh.
Eace, ic/s/is/i.
Faithful, amln.
Fall, to. I have fallen, 10/7.47. Do not fall, ind tCika'sh.
F.tr, ha'tJ. How far is it from here to...V fCaddi eihu'id minhineh U?
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
Father, ab, but before suffixes
and genitives abH; e.g. abH
Hasan, father of Hassan. Fatherland, watan. Fear, to, khaf. Do not fear, md
tekhaf.'ih. I was afraid of him,
khufteh minnuh. Feather, rhha. Fee, ugra; kireh. Fellow, gada% pi. yid'dn. Festival, 'id; festival of a saint,
mUlid. Fever, himma; sikhUna. Field, gheit. Figs, tin.
Filter, 2/r, pi. azydr. Find, to, lakd. I can't find Iiim,
md alkdhsh. Fire, ndr. Conflagration, hartka. Fish, samaka, pi. samdk. Flag, bandeira. Flea, barghut, pi. bardghU. Flower, zahr, pi. a%hdr. Fly, dubbdna, pi. diibbdn. Fog, shdbiira. Food, afci. Bring the dinner, g'tb
el-akl. Take the dinner away,
shU el-akl. Foot, rigl (also Leg). The feet
(dual), er-riglein. His feet.
For (prep.), 'alashdn.
Forbidden , mamnu'. Entrance forbidden (i.e. no admission), ed-dukhCd inamnu\ — Forbid- den by religion, hardm; e.g. Wine is a thing forbidden by God, en-neMd hardm. (A thing permitted by religion is called haldl.^
Foreign, gharlb.
Forget, to, nh'i. Do not forget, md tins ash.
Fork, shoka.
Fortress, kal'a.
Fountain, sebU (a pious foun- dation).
Fowl, farkha, pi. firdkh. In Upper Egypt farkha means a young pigeon. Cock, dtk, pi. diyuk; chicken, katkut, pi. katdkit.
France, Feransa. Frenchman, feransdwl.
Freight, nduldn.
Fresh, tdza.
Friend, habib or sahib, pi. habdib, ashdb.
Fruit, fakha; pi. faicdkih.
Garden, geneina, pi. geneindt. Gardener, gendim.
Garlic, t{lm.
Gate, bdb, pi. blbdn.
Gazelle, ghaidl, pi. ghuzldn.
Germany, Almdnia. German, al- mdnt. The German language, el-lisdn en-nimsdwi.
Gift, bakshhh (also reward).
Girl, bint, pi. bandt.
Give, to, add. She gave, adet. I gave, adeit. He gives or will give, yidt I give or shall give, adt. I give thee five, adilak khamsa. Give me the money, hdt el-fulUs (hdt = give).
Glass, jfizdz. Drinking -glass, kubbdyeh, pi. kubbdydt.
Go, to, rdh. Go, rdh! I went out, ruht. Whither is he gone, hd,u-a rdh fein? Go on, yallah. Does this train go to Cairo, el-kalr di rdih 'ala masr ? See Start and Travel.
Gold, dahab. Goldsmith, gohargl.
Good, taiyib.
Goods, budd'a.
Goose, wizzeh, pi. ivizz.
Grapes, 'inab.
Gratuity, baksMsh.
Grave (tomb), turba, pi. turab.
Grease, semn.
Great, see Large.
Greece, Rdm; Bildd^ er-Rihn. Greek, rdmi, pi. arwdm.
Green, akhdar.
Vocabulary. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
Greeting, saldm (see also p. xlv).
Gnide, to. Guide me, waddmt or khudm. Unless thou guidest me alone I shall give thee nothing, tewaddini (or tdkhudni) wahd^, walla mcL badtksheh haga.
Gun (musket), bunduklyeh.
Gunpowder, bdrild.
Hair, sha'r. A single hair, sha'ra.
Half, nusi.
Halt, ukaf or 'andak ! He halted, wikif. We shall halt, nukaf. See also Dismount.
Hammer, shakush.
If and,?d or yadd.The hands (dual), el-idein. Herhands,(dej/ia. Right hand, on the right, 'alyetmn. Left hand, on the left, 'a</i- "himdl.
Happen, to, see News.
Harbour, mina.
Hasten, to, istn'gil. Hasten (pi.),
Hat, burneita. [Uta'gilu !
Have (to) is expressed with the aid of the preposition 'and or li; e.g., I have a dog (= with me is a dog) 'andt kalb, or Uya kalb. See p. xxx.
Head, ras^ pi. rus.
Healthy, salhn; sdgh salhn; lai- }iib; bis-sahha; mabsiit (mabsCit means also contented).
Hear, to, simi'. He will hear, yisma'. Hear (listen), isma'.'
Heavy, tekil.
Help, to, sd'id; yisd'id.
Here, hineh (heneh). Come here, ta'dla (fem., ta'dlt) hineh. Go away from here, rdh min hineh.
High, 'dli.
Hill, tell, pi. tulul.
Hire, ugra.
Hold, to, misik. Hold the stirrup, imsik er-rikdb.
Home, belt, xvatan. Is the master at home, el-khawdga gHwa?
Honest, amin.
Honey, 'a.<ial.
Horse, hosdn, pi. kheil.
Horseshoe, na'l.
Hospital, isbitdliya.
Hot, sukhn (of food, liquids, etc.),
hart (of weather). It is hot,
ed-dunya liarr. Hotel, lokanda. — Which is the
way to the hotel? sikket el-
lokanda min ein? Hour, sd'a, pi. sd'dt. Two hours,
sd'atein; three hours, taldteh
sd'dt. To hire (a cab) by the
hour, bis-sd'a. House, belt, pi. biyut. How? iza'iy? How much, kam?
For how much, bikdm? How
many hours, kdm sd'a? Hungry, ga'dn. Hut, 'ishsha, pi. 'ishash. Ice, telg (also snow). Ill, 'aiydn; martd. Illness, 'aiya;
mar ad. Immediately, hdlan. In, within, gdwa. Interpreter, turgumdn. Intoxicated, sakrdn. Invoice, fatura. Iron, hadid.
Island, gez7reh, pi. yezdir. Italy, Itdlya. Italian, talydni. Jew, yahiidi, pi. yahild. Journey, to, safir. See Start. Judge, kddi. Jug, ibrik.
Key, muftdh, pi. mafdtik. Khedive, efendind (lit. 'our lord'). Kill, to, mauwit. I have killed
him, matiwittuh. Kill him,
mauwituh. Kindle, to, walla' . He has kindled
the Are (or kindle the fire),
walla' en-ndr. Knife, sikkineh, pi. sttkdk'm. Pen- knife, matwa. Knock, to, khabbal. Know, to, 'irif. I know him,
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
la'rafuh. I do not know thee,
md ba'rafaksh. Lady, sitt, pL slttdt. Lake (or pond), birkeh, pL Inrak. Lame, a'rag.
Lamp, lamba, pi. lainbdt. Land, barr. Lane, hdra.
Language, lisdn; luylia. Lantern, fdnus, pL fawdnh. Large, kehXr; 'azlm. Late, wakhrl. Thou art late, il -
akhkharl. Do not be late, md
tit'akhkharsh. Later, afterwards,
ba'dein. Laugh, to, dildk. Do not latigh,
md tidhaksh. Lay, to, lay down, to, halt. Lay
the hook there , hutt el-kitdb
hin&k. I have laid it down,
halteituh. I have not laid it
down, ma hattdtush. Lazy, kasldn. Lead, rusds. Lead-pencil, kalam
rusds. Leave, to, tarak; yitruk. — Leave
me (in peace), khaUtni! Left, shimdi. Go to the left, ruli
'ashshim,dlak. Leg, see Foot. Lemon, lamUna, pi. lainun. Letter, gawdb, pi. gawdbdt. Re- gistered, mesogal or mesokar.
Are there any letters for me,
fih gaicdbdt 'ashshdn7? Lie, to, kldib. Thou hast lied,
inta kidlbt. Lie down, to (to go to sleep), ralcad.
He is lying down, yurkud. Lie
down, urkud. Light, nur, pi. anwdr. — A light
(glowing embers) for a cigarette
is asked for in a caf^ with the
word bassa or wil'a. Light, to, nauwar. Like. I should like, etc., see
Wish.
Little (adj.), mghaiyar. Little (adv.), shuwaiyeh or shwaiyeh (also too little).
Load, to (a horse). Load up, shiddu! Have you loaded (the pack-animals), shaddeitu?
Loaf, ragMf, pi. argMfeh.
Lock (of a door), kdlun, pi. ka~ wdVin. Padlock, fcj/?, pi. akfdl.
Loc.omotive, wdbur or bdbHr.
London, Londra.
Long, tawil.
Look for, to, see Seek.
Loosen, to, /taZi. Thou must loosen the rein, Idzim tehiU es-seir.
Lose, to, dalyaJ. I have lost my book, daiya'teh kUdb7. He will lose it, yedaiya'uh.
Louse, kamla, pi. kaml.
Low, wdtL
Lower, see Below. The lower road, et-tarik et-tahtdni.
Luggage, 'afsh. Luggage-ticket, bolisa.
Luncheon, see Midday.
Mad, magnun. Madhouse, mu-
Malodorous, nitln. [ristdn.
Make, to, 'amal.
Man, rdgil, pi. rigdleh. Human being, insdn, pi. nas (people) or bent ddam (the sons of Adam).
Market or Bazaar, suk, pi. aswdk.
Marriage, marriage - feast, farah.
Mat, straw-mat, hasira, pi. husr:
Match (light), kebrlta, pi. kebrlt.
Matter, to. That matters nothing to me (thee) , ana md-lt (inta mdlak). What does that matter to me, we' ana md-li? That does not matter (I hope it does not matter), md 'aleish.
Meat, lahm.
Medicine, daiva. (Peruvian bark, kma; quinine, m.alh el-klna; opium, aflUn^)
Melons. Musk-melons, shammdm. Water-melous, battikh.
Vocabulary. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
Midday, duhr. Midday meal (luncheon), ghadCi.
Middle, imisl.
Midnight, 7iuss el-leil.
Milk, lahan. Sweet milk, liallb or laban hal'ib. Sour milk, laban hdmid.
Minaret, mddna, pi. mdddin.
Minute, dahlka, pi. dakayik.
Mist, see Fog.
Mistake, ghaiat. [Linun.
Mohammedan, wuslhn, pi. mus-
Moisture, rutuba.
Money, fulus. 1 have no money, rnCi 'andish fulds. Money-chang- er, mrrdf.
-Month, see below.
Moon, kamar. New moon, Mini. Full moon, bedr.
More, aklar. More than 100 pias
tres, aktar min mit kirsh. One
more, kamdn wdhid^gheir. Still . more, kamdn. Morning. Early morning, subh or
sabdh. Forenoon, dahd. Mosque, garni', pi. gaxvdmi. Mosquito, namma, pi. n&mus. Mother, umm. Mount (a horse), to, rikib, pres.
yirkab. We have mounted,
rikibnd. Mountain, gebel, pi. yibdl (also a
mountain-chain). Moustache, shanab. Mouth, furnm. Much, too much, very, ketir. Name, ism, pi. asdmi. Wliat is
thy name, ismak ei? My name
Month, shahr; 2 months, shahrein; 3 months, talat uMiur. — Instead of the Arabic names of the mouths used in Syria, the Egyptians employ the Coptic (ancient Egyptian) names of the solar months, which, however, are always about nine days behind the European months. Each Coptic month has thirty days, and in order to complete the year live or six intercalary days are added at the end (in the beginning of September). The European names, liowever, are gradually coming into general use.
|
English |
January |
February |
March |
April |
May |
June |
|
European |
yendyir |
fehvdyif |
m&res |
abril |
mdpo |
pilnia |
|
Coptic tiba amshir j bavamhdt |
barm^deh |
bashens baHiia |
||||
|
Ensjlish |
July |
August |
September October |
November |
December |
|
|
European! yUlia 1 |
aghostoi |
sehtember |
oktSber |
ndf ember |
disember |
|
|
Coptic |
ebtb misra |
m |
bdba |
TiatUr |
kiydk |
|
|
The intercalary days (see above) are called aii/dy/i en-)iest. |
The Moslem months form a lunar year only (comp. p. xcv). Their names are: Moharrem, Safar, Rain' Auicil, Rain' et-Tdni, Gemdd Auioil, Gemdd Tdru, Regeb, Sha'bdn, Ramadan (month of the fast), Shauwdl, Dhul- Ki'deh, Dhul-Higgeh (month of the pilgrimage).
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
is Hassan, isml Hasan. What is the name of that in Arabic, ismeh di ei bit-'arabt?
Napkin, fiUa.
Native, ibn el-beled.
Narrow, daiyik.
Near, kuraiyib.
Necessary, lazim. It is necessary that I seize him, Idzim amsikvh. Unnecessary, mush Idzim.
Neighbour, gar, pi. girdn.
Neighbourhood, bilad.
Never, abadan, with the negative of verbs, e.g. I never smoke, ana md ashrabsh ed-dukhkhdn dbadan (lit. I never drink tobacco).
New, gedid.
News, khabar. What has happen- ed, khabar ei ?
Night, leil. By night, bil-leil; mid- night, nuss el-leil.
Nile, bahr en- NII0T sim]>]y ei-bahr.
Nilometer, mikyds.
No, Id. No, I will not. Id, mush'diiz Qduza, if a woman speaks).
Noon, duhr.
North, northern, baharl.
Nose, mandkhir.
Not, mush or md-sh (see p. xxxi).
Nothing. There is nothing, md fish. What dost thou wish? Nothing (answer), biddak ei? Walla hdga or shei.
Now, dilwakt.
Nubia, Bildd el-Bardbra.
Number, nimra.
Oasis, lodh.
Obelisk, misalla.
O'clock. What o'clock is it, es-sd'a kdm? It is 3 o'clock, es-sd'a taldteh. It is I/2 P^st 4, es-sd'a arba'u nuss. It is 1/4 to 5, es-sd'a khamseh ilia rub'. About 8 o'clock, nahw es-sd'a tam,dnyeh.
Often, keftr, marrdt kettr.
Oil, zeit.
Old. An old castle, kasr kadim
(or kasr 'atik). An old man,
rdgil kebir or 'agHz. Olives, zeitHn. On, see Concerning. On (interjec), yallah .' Onion, basala, pi. basal. Only, bass. Open, to, fatal}. Open thy box,
iftah sanddkak! Oranges, burtukdn. Ostrich, na'dmeh, pi. na'dm. Otherwise, walla. Out, outside, barra. Out (prep.),
m,in. Out, to go. He went out, tili'. He
will go out, yitla' (with or
without barra). Ox, tor, pi. tirdn. Pack, to, hazam. Pain, waga'. Paper, warak. Para, [adda; pi. the same. Parasol, shemsiyeh. Parents, wdlidein or ab u wnni
(lit. father and mother). Passport, bassaborlo. Here is my
passport, dho el -bassaborlo
betd'i. Pay, to, dafa'. Thou hast not yet
paid, lissa md dafa'tish. I shall
pay, 'dwiz adfa'. Peach, khokha, pi. khokh. Pen, risha. Penholder, kalam. Pepper, fillil. Perhaps, balki; yimkin. Physician, hakim, pi. hukama. Piastre, kirsh, pi. kurilsh. Pig, khanzir, pi. khandzir. Pigeon, hamdma, pi. hamdm. Pilgrim (to Mecca), hagg , pi.
higgdg. Pistachios, fistuk. Place, to, see Lay. Plate, sahn, pi. suhiin. Please, min fadlak!
Vocabulary. I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
xli
Please, to. It does not please me, m& yi'gibnhh.
Plums, barkHk.
Pocket, geib.
Poison, simm.
Policeman , bolls or shauwish. Police, bolts.
Pomegranate, rumntan.
Pond (or lake), birkeh, pi. birak.
Poor, fakir, v\askin, pi. fuAara, masdktn.
Port (harbour), mina.
Porter, bammdl or shaiyal; pi. hammalin, shaiydUn.
Postage - stamp , warakat bu-ita, pi. warak.
Post-office, liusta.
Pot, kidra, pi. kidar.
Poultry, firdkh'. See Fowl.
Prayer, said, f\. saldivdt. Caller to prayer, mu'eddin.
Pretty, kwaiyis ; gamil.
Previously, kabl.
Privy, kanlf, beit er-rdha. Where is the privy? el-kanif fein?
Promontory, rds.
Prophet, nabl or (applied to Mo- hammed) rasdl.
Pulpit, minbar or manbar.
Put, to. Put it here, glbiih. Put it above, tallauh. Put it below, nazziluh. See Send, Lay.
Pyramid, hdram, pi. ahrdm.
Quarrel, khindka.
Question, su'dl.
Quick, fcatpam; as an exclamation, yallah !
Railway, es-sikkeh el-hadid. Rail- way station, mahatta. Station- master, ndzir mahntta. Rail- way-train, fcatr. Goods -train kalr el-budd'a. Railway -car- riage, 'arabiyeh.
Rain, natar.
Razor, mUs. [hadinn.
Ready, hddir. We are ready, ihna
Receipt (for a bill), xuasl.
Red, ahmar.
Reliable, faithful, amh%.
Religion, din.
Remain, to, fidil. How long (i. e. how many days) wilt thou re- main hero? tifdal hineh kdtn yom?
Rest, to, istiraiyah. I have rested, istiraiyalit. I wish to rest for half-an-hour, bidd7 astiraiyah nussi sd'a.
Revolver, fard.
Rice, ruzz.
Rich, ghani.
Ride, to. Wilt thou ride, biddak tirkab? See also Mount.
Right, yemin. Turn to the right, ruh 'alyemmak.
Rise, to, kdm. Rise up, kHm.
Road, see Street.
Roast, to, shawd. I have roasted the meat, shaweit el-lahm. Roasted, mashwi. — Roast meat, rosto.
Robber, hardmt, pi. hardmtyeh.
Roof, sath, pi. sutHh.
Room, oda, pi. uwad.
Rope, habl, pi. hebdl.
Ruin, khardbeh, khirbeh. Ruined temple, birbeh.
Run, to, gard. Run, igrt!
Russia, Bilnd el-Moskob. Russian (noun or adj.), miskobi.
Saddle, sarg, pi. surdg. Pack- saddle, barda'a , pi. barddi Saddler, surug'i. Saddle-bag. khurg.
Sailor, bahr7, pi. bahrhjeh. Hivcr- boatman, mardkbl.
Salt, malh.
Sand, rami.
Satisfied, shab'dn.
Say, to, kdl. Say to him he must come, kill luh yigi.
Scholar (savant), 'dlim, pi. 'ulamd.
School. Elementary school, kul- tdh. Secoiidaryschool, medreseh,
xlii
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. 10. Arabic
pi. maddris. — Schoolmaster,
khoga; fiki (of a kuttat). Scissors, makass. Scorpion, 'akraba, pi. 'akdrib. Sea, bahr. See, to, to look, shdf. We saw the
Khedive, shufnd efendind. Do
you not see him, md tahu-
fuhsh ? Seek , to , dauwar. 1 have been
looking for thee all day, dau-
warteh 'aleik tCtl en-nahdr. Send, to, to forward. Send the
luggage jOff, khud el-'afsh or
waddt el-'afih. Serpent, ta'bdn,T^\.ta'dbin; haiyeh,
pi. haiydt. Servant, &/ia(/(Zdm, pi. fcftaddamm. Set, to, see Lay. Shave, to, halak. Sheep , kharuf (masc.) , na'ga
(fern.), ghanam (plur.). Ship, markib, pl.marafci6. Steam- ship, wdbur or bdbur. Shirt, kamis. Shoe (i.e. oriental shoe with
turned up toes), markub, pi.
mardklb . Slioot, to, darab (/. e. to heat), if
necessary with the addition
birrusds, i.e. with the lead. Short, kusaiyar. Show, to, warrd. Show me the
way, loarlnl es-sikkeh. Shut, to, kafal. Shut the door,
ikp.1 el-bdb. The door is shut,
el-bdb makful. Silent, to be, sikit. Be silent, Silk, harir. [uskut.
Silver, fadda. Sing, to, ghannd. He wiU sing,
yeghanni. Sing, ghanru. Singly (one after the other), wdhid
wdhid (masc.) ; wahdeh wahdeh
(fein.). Sir, khawdga (for Europeans) or
efendi (for Orientals).
Sister, ukht, pi. ukhivdt.
Sit, to, ka'ad. Sit (take a seat),
uk'ud. Sky, samd. Sleep, to, nam. 1 slept, nimt. He
sleeps, binCim. Sleep (imperat.
pi.), ndinu ! I cannot sleep, md
bakdarsh andm. To go to sleep,
see Lie down. Slippers, bantuflt Slowly. Go slowly , xhwaiyeh
shwaiyeh, or 'ala mahlak. Small, sughaiyar. Smoketobacco,to,«/im6(lit. drink)
ed-dukhkhdn. Comp. Never. Snow, ice, telg. So, kideh. Soap, sdbun. Sofa, diwdn. Soldier, 'askarl, pi. 'askariyeh.
Soldiery, 'askar. Son, ibn or ivalad, pi. iddd. Sort, gins. Give me some of this
sort, iddmi min el-ginseh di. Soup, shurba. Sotir, hdmid. South, southern, kibli. Speak, to, itkalUm. Dost thou
speak Arabic, titkaUim 'arabi? Spoon, ma'laka, pi. ma'dlik. Spring (of water), 'ain, pi. 'iyun. Spring (season), rabV. Square (in a town), middn. Star, nigmeh, pi. nugum. Falling
star, nigmeh zdrik. Start (on a journey), to, sdfir.
When will you start, tesdfiru.
imta? We will start to-morrow
morning, nesdfir bukra hadr'i
(at sunrise, ma'ash-shems; an
hour before sunrise, sd'a kabl
esh-shems). When does the
steamer start, el-bdbur yesdfir Stay, to, see Remain. [imtay
Ste&mhoa,t,bdburel-bahrov wdbur
el-bahr. El-bahr is frequently
omitted.
Vocabulary. 1. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.
xliii
Stick, 'asdya, pi. 'asdydt.
Still. Still more, kamdn. Still another, kamdn trdhid, (/heir.
Stirrup, rikdb, pi. rikdbdt.
Stone, hagar, pi. hegdra. Stone (of a fruit), nakdya.
Stop, to, see Halt.
Straight on, dughri.
Street or road, tarik ; derb, darb ; sikkeh. Main street (of a town) shdri' (comp. p. 35 ).
Strike, to, see Heat.
Strong, shedld (also violent).
Stupid, haVid. See Clumsy.
Sugar, sukkar. Coffee with sugar, kahwa bis-sukkar. Coffee with- out sugar, kahiva mingheir suk-
Summer, self. [kar or sddeh.
Sun, shems^OT sems). Sunrise, tuliV e.ih-shems. Sunset, maghreb. Sunstroke: he has had a sun- stroke, esh-shems darbetuh.
Sunshade, shems^yeh.
Sweep out, to, kanas. I have swept out the room, kanad el-oda. Sweep the loom^uknus el-6da.
Sweet, helu.
Syria, Esh-Shdm. Syrian (noun or adj.), shdm'i.
Table, sufra; larabeiza.
Tailor, khaiydt.
Take, to, khad. Take, khud! He takes or will take, ydkhud.
Take away, to, shdl. Take it away (or up), sMluh I
Taste, to. Taste tlie soup, duk esh-shurba.
Tea, shdy.
Teacher, mu'allim. See also Schoolmaster.
Telegraph, teleghrdf (also tele- gram). Telegrapli-wire, aUk. Telegraph-offlcial, t eleghrdfgl . I wish to telegraph , ana hiddi adrab teleghrdf.
Telescope, nadddra.
Temple-ruin, birbeh.
Tent, kheima, pi. khiyam. Tent- pole, 'amdd. Tent-peg, xi'atad.
Thanks, thank yon, kattarkheirak.
There, hindk. There he is, dhu ! There she is, dhi! Is there any bread there, fth 'evsh? Tli:;re is none, md fluh.
Thing, /tdjfa, s^hei.
Thirsty, 'atshdn.
Ticket, tezkereh, pi. lazdker.
Tie, to, rabat. I have tied, rabatt. Tie it, urbutuh! He (it) is tied (on), marbut.
Time, loaJct. See O'clock and Hour.
Tired, ta'bdn.
Tobacco, dukhkhdn. Water-pipe, shisheh. See Smoke.
To-day, en-nahdr-di (na/tar=day).
To-morrow, bukra.
Tongue, lisdn.
Too much, very, kel7r. Too little, shuwaiyeh or shwahjeh.
Tooth, sinn, pi. isndn.
Towel, futd (also table-napkin).
Town, medtneh, pi. mudun. Quarter of a town, hdra.
Travel (to) is expressed by tlie word for go, with the addition of b'd-arab7yeh, by carriage; bil-feluka, by boat; bU-m:irkib, by ship, etc.
Travelling-bag, see Box, Saddle- bag.
Tree, shagara, pi. ashgdr (also shrub).
Trousers (European), bantalun.
True, saMh. [See Clothes.
Turkey, Turkhja, Turk, Turkish,
Ugly, wihish. [turM.
Uncle, amm (paternal); /i/tdi (ma- ternal).
Understand, to, fihim. I have understood thee, fihimlak. I do not understand, mdnlsh fdhim.
Untrutliful, kadddb.
Upper. The upper route, et-tarlk el-fokdnl.
xliv
I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. lU. Arabic
Use, to be of, nafn'. It is no use, ma yinfa'sh.
Vainly, in vain, baldsh.
Valley, tvddt (wddi).
Very, ketlr; kawt; khalis.
Village, beled, pi. bildd. Village teadman, sheikh el-beled.
Vinegar, khall.
Violent, shedid.
Visit, ziydra.
Wages , ugra , kireh. Monthly wages, shahrhjeh, mdhlyeh.
Wait, to, islannd. Wait a little, istannd shxuaiyeh. Why didst thou not wait, 'ashshdn ei md stanneitsh?
Waiter, siifragl.
War, harb.
Wash, to, (jhaaal. I wisii to wash ray hands, biddl aghsil ideiya. Wash my clothes, ighsilhudujm. The washing, ghasU. How much does the washing cost, taman el -gha.nl kdm? Washerman, ghassdl. Washerwoman, ghas-
AVatch, sd'a, pi. sd'dt. [sdla.
Watchmaker, sd'dtl.
Watchman, ghaftr, pi. ghufara.
Water, maiyeh. Is there any water here? flh maiyeh hineh?
Water-closet, sec Privy.
Weak, da'tf.
Weather, hawd (also atmosphere and wind).
Week, pum'a. Fortnight (2 weeks), gum'atein. Three weeks, taldteh gum'dt. — Days of the week: Sun., yom el-hadd; Mon., yom el-itnein; Tues., yom et-taldt; Wed., yom el-arba' ; Thurs., yom, el-khamis; Frid., yom el- gum a; Sa.t., yom, es-sabt. Yom (day) is frequently omitted. Well, Mr, pi. abydr. Public
fountain, sebil. West, gharb. Western, gharbi.
Wet, mabltll. When, imta'i
Whence, min em.' Whence coinest thou, inta gdi (fem., mt? jiaj/eh) min ein ? Where, fein? Where is he, hHwa Whip, kurbdg; sot. [fein?
White, abyad.
Whither, fein? Whither goest thou, inta rdih (fem., inti rdiha) fein? Why, lei? minshdn ei? 'alashdn
('ashshdn) ei? Wide, ivdsi'. Wind, hawd; rih. Hot wind,
khamdsin; samum. Window, shibbdk, pi. shebdbik. Wine, nebid. Winter, shita.
Wish or to wish, talab. What dost thou wish, talabak ei? To wisli is also expressed by bidd, a wish, with suffixes (p. xxx). I -wish to go, biddi aruh. Dost thou wish to go, biddak teruh ? With, wtyd,, ma'. Come with me,
ta'dla wiydya. Within, gdwa. Without (prep.), min gheir. Woman, mar a or hurmeh; pi.
harim. or niswdn. Wood (substance), khashab. Work, shughl. Work, ishtaghal.' Write, to, katab. He will write yiktib. Write what I tell thee, iktib nil akullak. Year, sana. Two years, sanatein. Three years, taldteh sinm. This year, es-sand-di. Last year, 'dmenauwil. Yellow, asfar.
Yes, a'iwa. Certainly, na'am. Yesterday, embdreh. Yet, lissa. He has not yet arrived,
lissa md gdsh. Young, sughaiyar.
Vocabulary. I. PRELIMINARY INFOliMATloN. xlv
Salutations and Phrases. Health (peacej te with you. Es- saldmu 'aleikum. Answer : And with you be peace and God's mercy and blessing. V 'aleikum es-salam warahmet Allah wabarakdtuh. These greetings are used by Moslems to each other. A Moslem greets a Christian with — Thy day be happy. Nahdrak sa'td. Answer : Thy day be happy and blessed. Nahdrak sa'td wemubdrak (umbdrak). Thy day be white as milk. Nahdrak leben.
Good morning. Sabdhkum bil-klteir, ot sabdh el-khelr. Answer: God grant yon a good morning. Allah yisabbehkum bil-kheir.
Good evening. Mesdkiun bil-kheir, or meslkum bil-klieir. Answer : God vouchsafe you a good evening. Allah yiniesslkum bil-kheir; or messdkum Alldh bil-kheir. — May thy night be happy. Leiltfk sa'tdeh. Answer: Leiltak sa'ideh wemubdraka (xfumharka).
On visiting or meeting a person , the first question after the usual salutations is : How is thy health ? Iza'iyak, or keif hdlak (keif keifak), or eish hdlak ? Thanks are first expressed for the inquiry : God bless thee ; God preserve thee. Alldh yibdrek fik ; Alldhyihfazak Then follows the answer : Well, thank God. El-hamdu lilldh. — Be- duins and peasants sometimes ask the same question a dozen times.
After a person has drunk it is usual for his friends to raise their hands to their heads and say : May it agree with thee, sir. HanVan, yd sidi. Answer: God grant it may agree with thee. Alldh yehanntk.
On handing anything to a person : Take it. Khud. Answer : God increase thy goods. Kattar Alldh kheirak, or kattar kheirak. Reply: And thy goods also. Ukheirak.
On leaving: In God's care ! 'Alallnh! or Ft amuni Hldh ! Or, Now proceed with us. Yallah bina. To a person who is about to start on a journey : Peace be with thee. Ma' as-saldma. Answer: May God protect thee. Alldh yisallimak.
On the route: Welcome. Ahlan tea sahlan, or marhaba. Answer: Twice welcome. Marhabteirt.
I beg you (to enter, to eat, to take). Tafaddal (tefaddul, itfaddal); fem. tafaddali (itfaddali); pi. tafaddalu (lefaddalu, itfaddalil). — Wilt thou not join us (in eating)? Bismilldh (liter- ally 'in God's name'). Answer: May it agree with you, Bil-hand.
Take care; beware. C'd; fem. ^'i.
I am under thy protection ; save me. Fl'ardak. — My house is thy house. Beitt beitak. — If thou pleasest. J'rnil ma'riif.
What God pleases ('happens', understood). Mushalldit (an ex- clamation of surprise). — As God pleases, hishalldh. — By God. Walldh, or walldhi. — By thy head. Wahydt rdsak. — By the life of the prophet. Wahydt en-nab1. — By the life of thy father. Wahydt (( bilk. — Heavens I Yd saldm .'
xlvi
II. Geographical and Political Notes.
a. Area and Subdivisions of Egypt, i By Captain H. G. Lyons. Egypt proper, the country between the mouth of the Nile and the First Cataract, is a small region with well-defined natural bound- aries on three sides. On the N, is the Mediterranean Sea, on the E. the Arabian Desert and the Red Sea, and on the W. the Libyan Des- ert. The S. boundary is not marked by any natural feature, and has therefore at all ages been liable to alteration. Its fluctuations to the N. and S. form a kind of standard of the political power of Egypt, and the causes of the variations involve a great part of Egyptian history from the most ancient times down to the present day.
When Mohammed Ali, the founder of the modern vassal king- dom of Egypt (comp. pp. cxx at seq.), died in 1849, he bequeathed to his successor a power extending far to the S. of the First Cataract and including not only the Nubian Valley of the Nile, with the Nu- bian desert-regions, but also the so-called Egyptian Sudan (Bilad es-Sudan, 'land of the blacks'), consisting of the districts of Taka, Sennar, and Kordofan. The Khedive Isma'il (p. cxxii) pushed his boundaries towards the S. until they comprised the whole course of the White Nile and the greater part of the basin of the Bahr el- Ohazdl^ and finally extended to about 2° N. latitude. But the rebellion of the Arab tribes that broke out in 1883 under the Mahdi (p. cxxiv) utterly destroyed the new Egyptian power on the White Nile and caused the frontier to be withdrawn to Wadi Haifa. The cam- paigns of 1896-98 and the capture of Omdurman (p. cxxv), how- ever, finally united the Sudan with Egypt, though under totally altered conditions. Thus Egypt strictly so called now includes the valley of the Nile up to a point 27 M. to the N. of Wadl Haifa, the desert-strip along the Red Sea, the coast to the W. of Alexandria as far as the Gulf of Solum, the Libyan Desert with the five Oases, the greater part of the Sinai Peninsula, and the region of El-'Arish (comp. Baedekers Palestine). Its extreme length is 640 M. (N. lat. 3i°6'to22^), its breadth 596 M. (E. long.25°2' to 34"56'), and its area, inclusive of the deserts, ca. 400,000 sq. M. The area of Egypt proper, excluding the deserts, the oases, and the districts of El-'Arish, Sinai, Maryut, Mirsa Matruh, Ed-Daba', and Koseir, is about 12,000 sq. M. The Sudan, which begins on the Nile a little to the N. of Wadi Haifa and on the Red Sea at 22° N. lat., is under a special Anglo-Egyptian administration (comp. p. 415).
From the earliest times Egypt has been divided into two parts of very unequal size, known as Lower and Upper Egypt. The boundary between these is still, as in antiquity, to the S. of Cairo.
t Comp. the Map after the Index. — Further details on this subject are contained in a handy form in the Egyptian Government Almanac (comp. p. xcv).
II. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. xlvii
Upper Egypt, known as Es-Sa'id, extends nominally to the First Cataract only, but now embraces in a political sense most of Lower Nubia (comp. p. 384). Politically Egypt is now divided into fourteen Peovinces or MMlrlijeh. The provinces of Lower Egypt are : (1 ) KalyuMyeh (Qaliubia), at the head of the Delta, with Benha as its capital; (2) Sharktyeh (Sharqia), i.e. 'the eastern', with Zakazik as its capital; (3) i>«fca/iiZi/e/i (Daqahlia), with Mansura as its capi- tal; (4) Menufiyeh (Menulia), with Shibin el-K6m as its capital; (5) Qharbtyeh (Gharbia), i.e. 'the western', with Tanta as its capi- tal; (6) Beheireh (BehehsL), i.e. 'of the lake', with Damanhur as its capital. The last includes the oasis of Siweh. The following live governorates are presided over by governors (Mohafez) of their own, and are independent of the provincial administration : Cairo, Alexandria, Port Sa'id, Isma'iliyeh, and Suez. Sinai and El-'Arish are administered by the War Office. The eight Upper Egyptian provinces are those of Qizeh (Giza), JSeTOSue?/ (Beni Suef), FaiyCim (Fayum), Minyeh (Minia ; with the oases of Bahriyeh and Fardfru), Assidt (with the oases of DCtkhleh and KlidrgeK), Girgeh (Girga j capi- tal, Sohag), Keneh (Qena), and Assudn (Aswan).
The chief official in every province is the Mddir or Governor. Each mudir is assisted by a sub-mudir, a commandant of police, a sanitary inspector, and an engineer (for irrigation and buildings). The interior economy and the financial procedure are subject to in- vestigation by European inspectors from the Ministries of the In- terior and Finance, while others from the Ministry of Public Works and the Health Department control the technical work. The 14 pro- vinces are subdivided into 84 districts, called Markaz, the chief officials of which (Ma'mur) are directly subordinate to the mudir and have their official residence in the more important towns. The markaz, in their turn, are divided into Ndhiyeh, or communes, which include, besides the chief village, hamlets, settlements of agricul- tural labourers ('Ezbeh), and landed estates (Ab'adlyeh). The 'Om- deh, or chief magistrate of the commune, is directly responsible to the ma'mur. In the larger communes the 'omdeh is assisted by the Sheikh el-Beled, or mayor. The governorates are divided into quar- ters (Kism), each of which has its ma'mur.
According to the census of 1907 the Population of Egypt proper was 11,287,359, of whom 10,903,677 were settled natives, 97,381 were Beduins, and 286,301 were foreigners (147,220 Europeans including 20,653 British). The numbers of males and females were approximately equal. The settled population was distributed in 2 large cities (Cairo and Alexandria), 43 other towns with upwards of 10,000 inhab., and 3580 villages. The above figures show a po- pulation of 940 per sq. M. for Egypt proper, a density unequalled by any country in Europe (England and Wales 619, New York State 191, Saxony 830 per sq. M.). The total populaiton in 1897 was 9,784,405, in 1882 it was 0,831,131.
xlviii II. GEOGRAPJIICAL AND
b. Origin and Present Condition of the Egyptians.
By Professor G. Schwein/urlh. For thousands of years the banks of the Nile have been occupied by the Egyptians. Notwithstanding the interminable series of immigrations and other changes affecting the character of the inhabitants, the Egyptian type has always predominated with mar- vellous uniformity. As Egypt is said to be the 'gift of the Nile', so has the character of its inhabitants been apparently moulded by the influences of that river. No country in the world is so dependent on a river which traverses it as Egypt, and no river presents physical characteristics so exceptional as the Nile; so, too, there exists no race of people which possesses so marked and unchanging an individual- ity as the Egyptians. It is therefore most probable that this unvary- ing type is the product of the soil itself, and that the character cf the peoples who settled at different periods on the bank of the Nile, whatever it may originally have been, has in due course of time been moulded to the same constant form by the mysterious in- fluences of the river. In all countries, indeed, national characteris- tics are justly regarded as the natural outcome of soil and climate, and of this connection no country affords so strong an illustration as Egypt, with its sharply defined boundaries of sea and desert, and in its complete isolation from the rest of the world. This fidelity to type, which doubtless many other oriental races share with the Egyptians, is by no means in accordance with common theories as to the decline and degeneration of the Orient. These races seem to possess an innate capacity that is absent from Western nations — the capacity, namely, of permanently preserving the original type. In Egypt this tendency may be partly assisted by the universal practice of early marriages, by which the succession of generations is accelerated, while many children are born of parents still un- affected by any physical deterioration. Although the country has been at various periods overrun by Hyksos, Ethiopians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks, and although the people were tyrannized over, ill-treated, and in most cases compelled to in- termarry with these foreigners, the Egyptians have for thousands of years retained the same unvarying physical types, while their char- acter has been but slightly modified by the introduction of Christianity and Mohammedanism. If it now be borne in mind that these for- eigners generally invaded the country in the form of an army, that they formed but a small body compared with the bulk of the popula- tion, and that they either married native women or sought wives in other countries, it is obvious that they would either continue to exist for a time as a foreign caste, a condition apparently repugnant to nature and necessarily transient, or that they would gradually succumb to the never-failing influences of the soil and be absorbed in the great mass of the aboriginal inhabitants. An excellent il- lustration of this process is afforded by the Arabian iuTasion, with
POLITICAL NOTES. xlix
the cireunistaiices and results of wliicli wc are better acquainted than with the history of the other foreign immigrations; for, dis- regarding the Beduin trihes, ■who are entirely distinct from the Egyptian population, v'e now meet with genuine Arabs in the towns only, where the merchants, pilgrims, and other members of that people form a class entirely distinct from the natives, and one that is maintained only by means of reinforcements from abroad. Another proof of the transforming influences of the Egyptian climate is afforded by the uniform character of the domestic animals. The oxen, in particular, though they have often been repeatedly ex- terminated in a single century by murrain, and have been succeeded by foreign races from every quarter of the globe, almost invariably after a few generations assume the well-known Egyptian type witli whicli the representations on the ancient temples render us so familiar.
There have been many hypotheses as to the origin of the Egyp- tians. In all probability the rise and development of that people followed essentially the same course as those of other great races, whose geographical positions exposed them to a similar variety of external inflnences. In the course of its history this people attained a characteristic development of its own; but we have to inquire as to the nature of the original prehistoric stock. In classical antiquity the Egyptians were considered to be of African origin, and Diodorus has given expression to this view by quoting a tradition of the Ethiopians, according to which the Egyptians were originally an Ethiopian colony, just as their country itself is a product of the Nile. But the Greeks and Romans knew little of Central Africa, and, more especially, they were acquainted with none of the peoples of the Nile district except those whom we now distinguish as Hami- tic (proto-Semitic). The term Hamites or Hamitic races is used to distinguish that great ethnographic group of peoples which has, in the <ourse of ages, altered the population of half Africa, ever press- ing from E. to W. and driving out the primaeval population before them. The final stage of this migration, which, like those of the horse and camel, falls partly within the historic period, was reached when the Hamites came in contact with the later Semitic races. When these Hamitic peoples began to find their way from Asia across the Red Sea into Africa, they no doubt pushed down the Nile, after subduing the primaval inhabitants of the river-valley. The Ethiopian tradition thus agrees with the Biblical, which de- scribes Ham as the father of Mizraim and Cush — names under which the ancient Hebrews used to personify Egypt and Ethiopia.
The civilization and culture of the Egyptians have been suc- cessively affected by every race that has played a prominent part in W. Asia, from the ancient Babylonians to the modern Arabs and Turks. Maspero argues for a gradual infiltration from Libya also in the earlier epochs. But the Libyans were themselves Hamitic, no less than the Ethiopians who overtook them in their advance
Basdgkkb's Egypt. 7th Edit. d
1 11. GEOGJIAPHIOAL AND h. Modern Egyptians:
westwards. Beceut philologists (such as Reiiilsch) classify the Hani- Ites from their linguistic characteristics as the prototype of the Semitic family, distinguished by more elementary, more primitive forms. It is universally assumed that both Hamites and Semites had their original home in Asia. At what period each hived off from the original common stock is veiled in prehistoric darkness. But it is clear that Asiatic influences most have affected the dwellers on the Nile even before the introduction of the art of tillage, while the valley of the Nile iu Egypt was still populated by pastoral races — a conclusion based mainly on the origin of the domesticated ox and of several other domestic animals. On the other hand the original ancestor of the Egyptian domesticated ass was peculiar to Africa, dwelling among the mountains and steppe sto the S. of Egypt. In this fact we find an indication of the route followed by the Hamitic invaders of Egypt.
The beginning of anything like a regular political development in Egypt cannot be dated before the introduction of agriculture ; most probably it began with the cultivation of wheat and barley, grains of which have been found among the remains in the most ancient Egyptian tombs, dating from before the earliest dynasty. The origin of botli these cereals is indisputably Asiatic; their first home was in the valley of the Euphrates or in some more central region of the continent. Besides these grains the funeral offerings under the earliest dynasties included also linen, wine, and the pro- duce of other cultivated plants, originally indigenous to W. Asia.
Some of the earliest ideal conceptions of the proto-Egyptians must likewise have been drawn from Asiatic sources, which, however, in this case are to be looked for farther to the S. in that continent. Not only the use of incense but also the sycamore and the persea, the two sacred trees in the Egyptian Pantheon, were known in Egypt from the very earliest period. lUit all these plants are ex- clusively indigenous to the mountainous regions of S. Arabia and the adjoining coasts of the Bed Sea; they could have been derived from no other source. The use of incense is as ancient as the most ancient known religion. The tree called by the Greeks persea, and known to modern botanists as mimusops, flourished in the gardens of ancient Egypt ; and the sycamore, which is now nowhere found in a wild state outside the regions mentioned above, is to be seen all over Egypt at the present day.
To sum up. The condition of the prehistoric dwellers in the Egyptian Nile valley may be described as the result of a union be- tween the autochthonous inhabitants and the Hamitic tribes which, advancing from the Red Sea, entered the country from regions to the S. or S.E. of Upper Egypt. After along interval of time' the ancient dwellers on the Nile were subjected to new modifications, arising from the predatory attacks of a race that had attained a higher level of civilization. This latter race must have started from the
Feltohin. POLITICAL NOTES. li
valley of tlie Euphrates, otherwise it would not have been able to introduce into Egypt, as it did, the knowledge of wheat and barley and the art of cultivating them with the plough, the knowledge of copper, bronze, and various metallurgical processes, and perhaps also a religious system of; its own and even the art of writing. The net result of the whole historical process was Egyptian civilization as it existed under the Pliaraohs. +
The MonKRN Egyptians. The population of Egypt is composed of the following ten different elements.
[1). The Fkllahin (felldk'in, sing. fellQh), the 'tillers' or 'pea- sants', with whom must be reckoned the Coptic peasants of Upper Egypt, form the bulk of the population and may be regarded as the sinews of the national strength. They are generally slightly above the middle height; their bones, and par^icnlarly their skulls, are strong and massive; and their wrists and ankles are powerful and somewhat clumsy. ln\all these respects the fellahin, like their do- mestic animals, contrast strongly with the inhabitants of the desert. Notwithstanding this largeness of frame, however, the fellah never grows fat. The women and girls are particularly remarkable for their slender build. The men generally keep their heads shaved, but the hair of the soldiers and the long tresses of the girls, though always black and thick, is smooth and wavy, seldom curly. The hair on the faces of the men is scantier and more curly.
The chief peculiarity of the Egyptians is the remarkable close- ness of their eyelashes on both lids, forming a dense, double, black fringe, which gives so animated ari expression to their almond- shaped eyes. The very ancient and still existing custom of blacken- ing the edges of the eyelids with antimony ('koM'), which is said to serve a sanitary purpose, contributes to enhance this natural expression. The eyebrows are always straight and smooth , never bushy. The mouth is wide and thick-lipped, and very different from that of the Beduin or inhabitant of the oases. The high cheek- bones, the receding forehead, the lowness of the bridge of the nose, which is always distinctly separated from the forehead, and the flatness of the nose itself, are the chief characteristics of the Egyptian skull; but, as the jaws project less than those of most of the other African coloured races, it has been assumed that the skull is Asiatic and not African in shape. The Egyptian peasantry liave a much darker complexion than their compatriots in the towns, and their colour deepens as we proceed southwards , from the pale brown of the inhabitant of the Delta to the dark bronze hue of the Upper Egyptians. There is, however, a difference between the tint of the Nubians and that of the Upper Egyptians, even where they live in close contiguity, the former being more of a reddish-brown.
•}■ Prnf. G. Elliot Smith's study of the earliest remains has, however, led him to essentially diflereut views on the origia of the Proto-Egyptians. Comp. his hook mentioned on p. clxxxviii.
d*
lii II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND h. Modern Egyptians. •
In the ancient representations women are painted yellow and men red, merely because the former were paler owing to their indoor life, while the men were browned by labouring in the open air(Virchow).
The dwelling of the fellah is of a miserably poor description, consisting generally of four low walls formed of crude bricks of Nile mud, and thatched with a roof of durra straw, on which the poultry roost. In the interior are a few mats, a sheepskin, several baskets made of matting, a copper kettle, and a few earthenware pots and wooden dishes. But the railway-traveller, passing througli the Delta for the first time, must not suppose that the miserable, ruinous huts that meet his eye are typical of all peasants' dwellings in Egypt. In Central and Upper Egypt he will obtain a much more favourable impression. The fact is, that beneath an ICgyptian sky, houses are not of the same jiaramoUnt importance as in more northern regions, all that is wanted being shelter for the night. The day is spent in the open air, on the court in front of the hut, shaded by acacia trees, among whose branches the pigeons coo. Here the fellah spends his 'keif or leisure, chatting with his neighbours and spin- ning wool from a spindle that he turns in his hand.
The poorer peasant's mode of life is frugal in the extreme. His meals may be summarily characterized as 'short, scant, and bad'. The staple of his food consists of a peculiar kind of bread made of sorghum flour in Upper Egypt, or of maize in the Delta, wheaten bread being eaten by the wealthier only. This poor kind of bread often has a greenish colour, owing to an admixture of flour made from the kernels of Fcenum Graecum (see below). Next in importance in the bill of fare are broad beans (ful). For supper, however, even the poorest cause a hot repast to be prepared. This usually consists of a highly salted sauce made of onions and butter, or in tlie poorer houses of onions and linseed or sesame oil. Into this sauce, which in summer acquires a gelatinous consistency by the addition of the universal bamyas (the capsular fnut of the Hibiscus) and various herbs, each member of the family dips pieces of bread held in the fingers. Both in town and country, goats', sheep's, or buffaloes' milk also forms a daily article of food, but always in a sour condition or half converted into cheese, and in very moderate quantities only. In the height of summer the con- sumption of fruit of the cucumber and pumpkin species, which the land yields in abundance, is enormous. In spring large quantities of lettuce, radish-leaves, and similar green vegetables are eaten ; and the lower classes consume, for medical purposes during .January and February, considerable amounts of Fcenum Grjecum, a clover-like plant with a somewhat disagreeable odour (p.lxxiv). In the month of Ramadan alone (p. xcvi), when a rigorous fast is observed during the day, and on the three days of the great Bairam festival (Kurban Beiram), even the poorest indulge in meat, and it is customary to distribute that rare luxury to beggars at these seasons.
FeUahin. POLITICAL NOTES. liii
The dress of tbe Egyptian peasant calLs I'or little remark, espe- cially as he usually works in the fields divested of everything except a scanty apron. The chief articles of his wardrobe at other times are an indigo-dyed cotton shirt (kamts), a pair of short and wide cotton breeches, a kind of cloak of brown, home-spun goats' wool ('abdyeh), ox simply a blanket of sheep's wool (hirdm), and lastly a close- fitting felt skull-cap (libdeh). He is generally barefooted, but occa- sionally wears pointed red (marktih) or broad yellow shoes (balgha). The sheikhs and wealthier peasants wear wide, black woollen cloaks and the thick red 'Tunisian' fez (tarhush) with a blue silk tassel, round which they coil a turban (^imma; usually white). They usu- ally carry a long and thick stick (ndbut), made of ash imported from (Jaramania. All watchmen carry similar sticks as a badge of office.
The sole wealth of Egypt is derived from its agriculture, and to tbe fellahin alone is committed the important task of tilling the soil. They are, indeed, neither fitted nor inclined for other work, a circum- stance which proves how completely the settled character of the ancient Egyptians has predominated over the restless Arabian blood, which has been largely infused into the native population ever since the valley of the Nile was conquered by the armies of Islam. The ancient Egyptian racial type has been preserved in extraordinary purity in many fellah families, especially in Upper Egypt. This is particularly evident in the case of the children and women, whose features are not concealed and distorted by veils (which the ancient Egyptians despised). Even among the Nubians (p. Ix), between the first and second cataracts, faces occur that might almost lead us to think that some of the pictures of the period of the old Pharaohs had come to life and stood before us in tlesh and blood. In Lower Egypt, and especially in the Delta, the Semitic type has sometimes prevailed over the African in consequence of the steady stream of Arab immigration that has now been flowing formorethan atliousand years. The modern I'^gyptians, moreover, resemble the ancient in character and in the lot to which they are condemned. In ancient times tlie fellah, pressed into the service of the priests and the jiriiices, was compelled to yield up to them the fruits of his toil, and his position is nearly the same at the present day, save that the names of his masters are changed, and he has obtained some relief owing to the almost entire abolition of compulsory work.
In early life the Egyptian peasant is remarkably docile, active, and intelligent, but at a later period this freshness and buoyancy are crushed out of him by care and poverty and his never-ceasing task of filling the pitcher of the Danaides. He ploughs and reaps, toils and amasses, but he cannot with certainty regard his crops as his own, and the hardly earned ]iiastre is too frequently wrested from him. His character, therefore, becomes like that of a gifted child, who has been harshly used and brought up to domestic slavery, but at length perceives that he has been treated with injustice, and
liv II. GEOGRAPHICAL AJSD b. Modern Egyptians ;
whose amiability and intelligence are then superseded bysullenness and obstinacy. Thus down to a few years ago, as in the time of Ammianus Marcellinns, the fellah would often suffer the most cruel blows in dogged silence rather than pay the taxes demanded of him.
In his own fields the fellah is an industrious labourer, and his work is more continuous than that of the peasant of more northern countries. He enjoys no period of repose during the winter, and the whole of his spare time is occupied in drawing water for the irriga- tion of the land. Notwithstanding his hard lot, however, he is an entire stranger to any endeavour to better his condition or to im- prove his system of farming. As soon as he has accomplished the most nece.ssary tasks he rests and smokes, and trusts that Allah will do the remainder of his work for him. The fellah is generally of a peaceful disposition, kindly and helpful to his neighbour. Foreigners can see his best side only by observing his dealings with his fellows; for he regards strangers as merely so many convenient sources of profit (comp. pp. xxiv, xxv).
(2). Copts (kibt, 'ibt). While we have regarded the fellahin as genuine Egyptians in consequence of their uninterrupted occupation of the soil, the religion of the Copts aflords us an additional guarantee for the purity of their descent. The Copts are undoubtedly the most direct descendants of the ancient Egyptians, there being no ground for the assumption that their ancestors were foreign immigrants who embraced Christianity after the conquest of the country by the Mohammedans, while on the other hand the obstinacy with which they defended their monophysite Christinuity for several centuries against the inroads of the creed of Byzantium affords another indication'of their Egyptian character. At the last census (1907) the number of Copts in Egypt was 706, SSS."!' They are most numerous in the towns of Upper Egypt (554,282 J, around the ancient Koptos, at Nakadeh, Luxor, Esneh, Dendera, Girgeh, Tahta, and particularly at Assiiit and Akhmim.
The Oolitic Patriarch is elected from their own number by the monks of the live chief monasteries of Egypt. These are the monasteries of St. Anthony andjSt. Paul in the eastern desert (p. 206), two in the Waii Natrun (p. 32), and the convent of El-Meliarrak (p. 219), near Maufalut.
;Most of the Coptsthat dwell in towns are engaged in the more refined handicrafts (as watchmakers, goldsmiths, jewellers, em- broiderers, tailors, weavers, cabinet-makers, turners, etc.), or in trade, or as clerks, accountants, and notaries. Their physique is accordingly materially different from that of the fellahin and even from that of Coptic peasants. They are generally of more delicate frame, with small hands and feet; their necks are longer and their skulls are higher and narrower than those of the peasantry; and,
+ The total' number of Christians in Egypt in 1S07 was 881,692, iiiclud ing 76,953 Greek Orthodox, 57,744 Roman Catholira, 13,736 Protestants, and 27,937 Eastern Christians.
Copls. POLITICAL NOTKS. Iv
l;istly, their complexion is fairer. These diftereiices are sufficiently accounted for by their mode of life ; for, when we compare those Copts who are engaged in rustic pursuits , or the Coptic camel drivers of Upper Egypt, with the fellahin, we find that the two races are not distinguisha'ble from each otiier. 'J'his dualism of type in bodily structure, common to all civilized lands of the South, has been recognized also in the skeletons of the ancient mummies.
Few nations in the East embraced the Gospel more zealously than the dwellers on the Nile. Accustomed as they had long been to regard life as a pilgrimage to death, as a school of preparation for another world, and weary of their motley and confused Pantheon of divinities , whose self-seeking priesthood designedly disguised the truth, they eagerly welcomed the simple doctrines of Christianity, which appeared so well adapted to their condition and promised them succour and redemption. Like Eutyches, they revered the divine nature of the Saviour only, in which they held that every human clement was absorbed; and when the Council of Chaleedon in 451 sanctioned the doctrine that Christ combined a human with a divine nature, the Egyptians with their characteristic tenacity adhered to their old views, and formed a sect termed Eutychians, or Monophy sites, to which the Copts of the present day, and also the Abyssinians, still belong.
The name of the Copts is au ethnical one, being simply an Arabic cor- ruption of the Greek name of Egyptians. The theory is now exploded that Ihey derive their name from a certain itinerant preacher named Jacobus, who according to JUakrizi was termed El-Eeradi'i, or 'blanket-beaver\ from the old horse-cloth worn by him when he went about preaching. This .lacobus promulgated the monophysite doctrine of Eutyches, which had found its most zealous supporter in Bioscurus, a bishop of Alexandria, who was declared a heretic and banished after the Council of Chaleedon ; and his disciples were sometimes called Jacobites. If this name had ever been abbreviated to Cobit or Cobt, it would probably have occurred frequently in the writings of Jlouophysites ; but there we find no trace of it. It is, on the other hand, quite intelligible that the word Copt, though originally synonymous with Egyptian, should gradually have come to denote a particular religious sect; for, at the period when the valley of the Nile was conquered by Amr, the native Egyptians, who almost exclusively held the monophysite creed, were chiefly distinguished by their religion from their invaders, who brought a new religious system from the East.
These Egyptian Christians strenuously opposed the resolutions of the Council of Chaleedon, and thousands of them sacrificed their lives or their welfare in the fierce and sanguinary conflicts of the Hth century, the causes of which were imperfectly understood by the great majority of the belligerents. The subtle dogmatic dif- ferences which gave rise to these wars aroused such hatred among these professors of the religion of love, that the defeated Mouophy- sites readily welcomed the invading armies of Islam, or perhaps even invited them to their country.
After the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (p. 44 ) the Copts were at first treated with lenity, and were even appointed to the highest
M II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND b. Modem Egyptians:
government oMces; but tliey were soon doomed to suffer persecutions and privations of every description. These persecutions were mainly due to their unbounded arrogance and their perpetual conspiracies against their new masters, and their Mohammedan contemporaries even attributed to them the disastrous conflagrations from j. which the new capital of the country so frequently suffered. Their hopes were doomed to bitter disappointment, and their national pride to utter humiliation. Their conquerors succeeded in maintaining their position, and though apparently at first inclined to moderation, were at length driven by the conduct and the previous example of the Copts themselves to persecute and oppress them to the uttermost.
In spite, however, of all these disasters a numerous community of Copts has always existed in Egypt, a fact which is mainly to be accounted for by the remarkable tenacity and constancy of the Egyptian character. Owing, however, to the continual oppression and contempt to which they have been subjected, they have de- generated in every respect, while their character has been correspond- ingly altered. Their divine worship will strike the traveller as strange, and anything but edifying or elevating (comp. p. 107). It is true that the Copt is a regular attendant at church ('keniseh'), but his conduct while there and the amount of benefit he receives are somewhat questionable. In the service the Coptic language, i.e. the language of the Egyptians of the 3rd cent. A.D., is used for pray- ing and chanting. But as the majority even of the priests themselves, though able to read this ancient speech, do not understand it, the Arabic translation of the prayers is given at the same time, and the sermon is delivered in Arabic. Since the 6th cent, the doc- trine of the Jacobites has been in a state of deathlike lethargy which has made even the slightest attempt at further development im- possible. In no other religious community is fasting so common as among the Christians of Egypt and Abyssinia. They still found their creed upon Old Testament institutions, and so show pretty clearly that had ChristiaTiity been confined to the East it would never have become the chief religion of the world. The Coptic church has not even training-colleges for its ministers.
The Copts are no longer distinguished from the Arabs by their dress. Only the priests now wear the dark blue or black turban and the dark-coloured clothes, a costume that was originally prescribed by their oppressors. A practised eye will frequently detect among them the ancient Egyptian cast of features. Towards strangers the Copt is externally obliging, and when anxious to secure their favour he not unfrequently appeals to his Christian creed as a bond of union. Many Copts have recently been converted to Protestantism by American mis- sionaries, particularly in Upper Egypt, chiefly through the foundation of good schools and the distribution of cheap Arabic Bibles. Even the ortliodox Copts have a great reverence for the sacred volume, and it is not uncommon to meet with members of their sect who know the
HeduiuK POLITICAL NOTES. Ivii
whole of tlie Gospels by heart. The liomau propaganda, which was begun by Franciscans at the end of the i7th and beginning of the 18th cent., has been less successful among the Copts. There are, however, a few small Roman Catholic communities in Upper Egypt (atGirgeh, Akhmim, and Nakadeh), forming the 'Church of the Catholic Copts', whose patriarch, Cyrillos II., consecrated in 189U, is a native Copt. The present patriarch of the old Copts, at Cairo, is likewise named Cyrillos.
(3). Bbduins. Bedu (sing, hcdawi) is the name applied to the nomadic Arabs, and 'Arab (sing. 'Arahi) to those who immigrated at a later period and settled in the valley of the Nile. They both differ materially from the dwellers in towns and from the I'ellahin. The subdivisions of the Beduiu tribes are called KabUch. 'J'hough differing greatly in origin and language, the wandering tribes of Egypt all profess Mohammedanism. Again, while some of them have immigrated from Arabia or Syria, partly in very ancient and partly in modern times, and while others are supposed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the territories claimed by them (as the Berbers of N. Africa and the Ethiopians and Blemmyes of Nubia), or former dwellers on the Nile expelled from their homes by foreign invaders, they all differ greatly from the settled Egyptian population; and this contrast is accounted for by the radical difference between the influences of the desert and those of the Nile valley.
According to the census of 1907 there were 635, 012 Beduins in Egypt, of whom 537,631 were settled in towns and villages.
The Beduins may be divided into two leading groups : (1) Beduins in the narrower sense, i.e. Arabic-speaking tribes, most of whom have probably immigrated from Arabia or Syria, and who occupy the deserts adjoining Central and Northern Egypt besides to a con- siderable extent settling in the Nile valley; (2) Bega, who range over the regions of Upper Egypt and Nubia situated between the Nile and the lied Sea, and extending to the frontiers of the Abyssi- nian mountains. These are the descendants of the ancient Blem- myes (p. 386 ; their territory being known as 'Edbai'J. The two prin- cipal races of the second group, with whom alone we have to deal as inhabitants of Egypt, are the Bisharhi and the 'Ababdeh. They are widely scattered in the valleys of the desert (pp. 372 et seq.), between the tropics and the latitude of Keneh and Koseir, and lead a poverty-stricken life with their very scanty stock of camels and goats. Though closely resembling the other Bega tribes in appear- ance, the 'Ababdeh (sing. 'Abadi, probably the Gebadaei of Pliny) possess an original language of their own ( 'to-bedyawiyeh'), which, however, they have long since exchanged for bad Arabic. They have adopted also tlie costume of the fellahin, while the Bisharin tend their large flocks of sheep and herds of camels in a half-naked coiiilition, girded with a leathern apron and wrapped in a kind of cot- ton shawl (meldya). All these 'Ethiopians' are remarkable for their
Iviii 11. GP:0GRAI'H1CAL AND h. Modern Et/yptians :
fine and almost Caucasian cast uf features, their very dark, bronze- coloured complexion, and their luxuriant growth of hair, which they wear loose or hanging down in numberless plaits. Their figures are beautifully symmetrical, and more or less slender in accordance with their means of subsistence, and their limbs are gracefully formed. In other respects they resemlile all the other children of the desert, as in the purity of their complexion, the peculiar thinness of their necks, and the premature wrinkling of the skin of their faces. Com- pared witli their bold and quarrelsome neighbours the lUsharin, the 'Ababdeh are generally gentle anil inofi'cnsive.
Besides the Bcga there arc numerous Beduins who inhabit the steppes and deserts belonging to the region of the Nile, but beyond the limits of Egypt, and range as far as the confines of the heathen negro-races on the left bank of the Nile, nearly to 9° N. latitude ; but with these we have not at present to deal. As regards the Beduins proper of the N., their common home, the desert, seems to have exerted a unifying effect upon races that were originally different, and the peculiar characteristics of each have gradually disappeared before the uniform environment of all.
There are three important Beduin tribes in the peninsula of Mount Sinai : tlie Terdbiyin; the Tiyaha, who occupy the heart of the peninsula, between Suez and 'Akaba; and the Sawarkeh or 12- 'Arayish, to tlie north of the latter. In Upper Egypt, besides the 'Ababdeh, the most important tribes who occupy the eastern bank of the Nile are the Beni Wasel and the Atwani, who, however, have now settled on both banks of the Thcban Nile valley and are gradually blending with the fellahin, and the Ma'dzeh^ who dwell in groups among the limestone mountains between Suez and Keneh, where there are good pastures at places. Most of the Arabian Beduins, on the other hand, wlio belong to Egypt, confine themselves to tlie westernbank of the Nile. They occupy tlie whole of this side of the river from the Faiyum as far as Abydos near Girgeh, and it is mainly with their aid that communication is maintained with the western oases, peopled by a totally different race, who till tlie ground and possess no camels, being probably allied to the Berbers of Northern Africa (one of the numerous liibyan tribes mentioned in ancient inscriptions).
The Beduins of the North, and especially the tribe of the Vlad 'All, have inherited with comparative purity the fiery blood of the desert-tribes, M'ho achieved such marvellous exploits under the banner of the prophet, but the traveller will rarely come in contact with them unless he undertakes a journey across the desert. The Beduins who assist travellers in the ascent of the pyramids belong to the Nagama tribe. Genuine Beduins are to be found nowhere except in their desert home, where to a great extent they still retain the spirit of independence, the courage, and the restlessness of their ancestors. As in the time of Herodotus, the tent of the Beduin is
Antb Town-Dwellers. POLITICAL NOTES. lix
still his home. Where it is pitched is a matter of iudifference to him, if only the pegs which secure it be firmly driven into the earth, if it shelter his wife and child from the burning sunshine and the chilly night-air, and if pasturage-ground and a spring be within reach. At Ramleli on the coast, near Alexandria, the traveller may see numerous Beduin families of the poorest class encamped in their tents, where they live in the most frugal possible manner, wilji a few miserable goats and the fowls which subsist on the rubbish in their neighbourhood. Though professors of Islam, the Beduins of Egypt are considerably less strict in their observances than the fel- lahin of the valley of the Nile, who are themselves sufllciently lax, and above all they sadly neglect the religious duty of cleanliness. They do not observe the practice of praying five times a day, and they are as a rule but slightly acquainted with the Koran. Kelios of their old star-worship can still be traced among their customs.
The traveller will occasionally observe Beduins in the streets and in the bazaars of the armourers and leather-merchants, and will be struck with the proud and manly bearing of these bronzed children of the desert, whose sharp, bearded features and steady gaze betoken firmness and resolution. In Egypt the traveller need not fear their predatory propensities.
(4). Akab Dwellers in Towns. Those Arabs witli whom the traveller usually comes in contact in towns are shopkeepers, officials, servants, coachmen, and donkey-attendants. These are generally of a much more mixed origin than the fellahin. It thus happens that the citizens of the Egyptian towns consist of persons of every complexion from dark-brown to white, with the features of the worshippers of Osiris or the sharp profile of the Beduins, and witli the slender figure of the fellah or the corpulence of the Turk. Among the lower classes intermarriage with negro-women has some- times darkened the complexion and thickened the features of their offspring; while the higher ranks, including many descendants of white slaves or Turkish mothers, more nearly resemble the European type. As the inhabitants of the towns could not be so much op- pressed by their rulers as tl\e peasantry, we find that they exhibit a more independent spirit, greater enterprise, and a more cheerful disposition than the fellahin. At the same time they are not free from the dreamy character peculiar to orientals, nor from a tinge of the apathy of fatalism; and their indolence contrasts strongly with the industry of their European rivals in political, scientific, artistic, and all business ]iursuits. Of late years, however, they have begun to occu]>y themselves with scientific studies and to produce a con- siderable number of higher oflicials, barristers, doctors, architects, ensincers, etc. The townspeople profess Islam , but, in their youth particularly, they are becoming more and more lax in their obedience to the Koran. Thus tlic custom of praying in jmblic, out- side the house-doors and shops, is gradually falling into disuse. Like-
Ix II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND b. Modem Egyptians:
wise the European dress is superseding the oriental, though the latter is far more picturesque and better suited to the climate. On the whole, however, they are bigoted Mohammedans, and share the contempt with which the fellahiu regard all other religions. Their daily intercourse with unbelievers and their dread^jof [the power of the Christian nations tend, however, to keep their fana- ticism, which otherwise would be unbounded, in check, and has even induced them sometimes to admit strangers to witness the sacred ceremonies in their mosques.
(5). Nubians. The name Bardbra (sing. Berbcrl) is applied to tlie Nubian inhabitants of the Nile valley between the neighbour- hood of Assuan and the Fourth Cataract. The Egyptians and Nubians are radically different, and the dislike between the two races is carried to such an extent that Nubians, even in Egypt, never marry Egyptian wives. The Nubians are inferior to the Egyptians in industry and energy, especially in tilling the soil, and in pliysical (and perhaps also in intellectual) vigour j and they are more super- stitious as is indicated by the numerous amulets they wear round their necks and arms. They are, however, superior to the Egyptians in cleanliness, honesty, and subordination, and possess a more highly developed sense of honour. The traveller must not expect to find them very sincerely attached or grateful, any more than the native Egyptians, but as servants they are certainly preferable. The Nubian language belongs to a special group of the African tongues; and I)r. Brugsch was of opinion that it may afford a clue to the inter- pretation of the still undeciphered Meroi tic inscriptions of the Nubian part of the Nile valley. It is divided into three dialects: 1. Kenuz, spoken between the First Cataract and Es-Sebu'a; 'J. El-Mahasi, from Korosko to Hannek (at the third cataract) ; 3. Dongola, pre- valent in the province of Dongola from Hannek to Gebel Deiga (near Korti) and resembling the Kenuz dialect.
Those Nubians who do not learnArabicgrammatically neverspeak it thoroughly well ; but itis generally, though imperfectly, understood in Nubia. The traveller must therefore not expect to learn good Arabic from his Nubian servants. In their native country the Nubians till the banks of the Nile, but their land is of very limited extent and poorly cultivated; and as their harvests are scanty they are rarely able to support large families. They accordingly often emigrate at an early age to the richer lands of Egypt, chiefly to the large towns, in quest of employment. When the Nubian has succeeded in amassing a mod- erate fortune, he returns to settle in his native country, of which throughout his whole career he never entirely loses sight. They are most commonly employed as doorkeepers ('6auu'a6 J, as house-servants (khaddam), as grooms and runners (sdis), for which their swiftness renders them unrivalled, as coachmen f'artupZj, and as cooks C/aifca&ft^. Each of these five classes is admirably organized as a kind of guilda w ith a sheikh of its own, who levies a tax from each member, and
Levantines. POLITICAL NOTES. Ix
guarantees the cliaracter and abilities of members when hired. Thefts are very rarely committed by the Nubians, but in cases of the kind the sheikh compels the whole of his subjects to contribute to repair the loss, and cases have been known in which several hundred pounds have been recovered in this way. The result is that there is a strict mutual system of supervision, and suspected characters are unceremoniously excluded from the fraternity. Nubian women are seldom seen in Egypt.
(Gi\ Sudan Nkgeoes. Like the Nubians, most of the negroes in Egypt are professors of- Islam, to the easily intelligible doctrines of which they readily and zealously attach themselves. Most of the older negroes and negresses with whom the traveller meets have originally been brought to Egypt as slaves, and belong to natives, by whom they arc treated more like members of the family than like servants. The eunuchs, who also belong almost exclusively to the negro races, very seldom avail themselves of any opportunity of regaining their liberty, as their emancipation would Jiecessarily ter- minate the life of ease and luxury in which they delight. — The numerous negroes who voluntarily settle in Egypt form the dregs of the people aiid are employed in the most menial offices.
Most of the negro- races of Central Africa to the N. of the equator are represented at Cairo, particularly in the rank and tile of the negro regiments. In 1907 there were 65,162 natives of the S&dan settled in Egypt.
(7). TuEKs. Although the dynasty of the viceroys of Egypt is of Turkish origin (see p. cxx), a comparatively small section of the community belongs to that nation. According to the census of 1907 there were '27,591 genuine Turks in Egypt, besides 42,134 Turkish subjects from other parts of the Ottoman empire (Syria, Arabia, Armenia). The Turks of Egypt are chiefly to be found in the towns, where most of them are government-officials, soldiers, and merchants. The Turkish language is very little understood in Egypt.
(S). Lkvantinks, Syrians, etc. A link between the various classes of dwellers in Egypt and the visitors to the banks of the Nile is formed by the members of the various Mediterranean races, especially the Christian Syrians, known when of partly European origin as Levantines, who have been settled here for several genera- tions, and form no inconsiderable element in the population of the larger towns. Most of them profess the Latin form of Christianity, and Arabic has now become their mother tongue, although they speak also French, Italian, or English. They are good men of business, and are often employed as shopmen and clerks. Their services have also become indispensable at the consulates and in several of the government-offices. A large proportion of them arc wealthy. The Egyptian press is very largely in the hands of Syrian " Levantines, a great many of whom are lawyers, physicians, and chemists also.
Ixii 11. GKOGRAPHICAL AND b. Modern KyyptiaHs:
(Q). AiiMiiNiANs AND Jews. This section of the com m unity is somewhat lesa numerous than the last. The Armenians generally possess excellent abilities and a singular aptitude for learning both oriental and European languages, which they often acquire with great grammatical accuracy. They often hold high positions in the service of government, and many of them are wealthy goldsmiths and jewellers.
The Jews (38,635 in 1907) are met with almost exclusively in Cairo and Alexandria, and can hardly be reckoned as among the natives of the country. Most of them are from Palestine, though of Spanish origin, but many have recently immigrated from Roumania. The latter are popularly called 'Shlekhti', in reference to the bar- barous German idiom tliey speak. Most of the money-changers in the streets (sarrdf), and many of the wealthiest merchants of Egypt, are Jews, and notwithstandiug tlic popular prejudice entertained against them, they now form one of the most highly respected sections of the community.
(10). Europeans. The number of European residents and visitors in Egypt was 147,220 in 1907, inclusive of the British army of occupation. The Greelvs arc most numerously represented, then the Italians, British (including Indians and Maltese), French, Aus- trians (including many Dalmatians), Russians, and Germans. Be- sides these nationalities, there are also a few representatives of America, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, and other countries. — The Greeks of all classes are generally traders. They constitute almost entirely the aristocracy of Alexandria, and, at the other end of the scale, nearly all the small inn-keepers and victual- dealers (bahkdl) in other towns are Greeks. The cigarette-industry also is almost exclusively in the hands of Greeks. They are the proprietors of the small steam-mills that abound in the villages, and of the numerous small banks which lend money on good security, both to the peasantry and the government-officials, at a rate of interest sometimes amounting to (5 per cent monthly, the maximum permitted by law. The Greeks are the only Europeans who have established themselves permanently as merchants beyond the confines of Egypt proper. Almost the entire trade with the Egyptian Sudan is now in their hands. Of recent years many Greeks have been active as physicians, lawyers, engineers, architects, and especially land- owners, but they are conspicuous by their absence from the govern- ment-service. The Greeks have also the unenviable notoriety of committing numerous murders, thefts, and other crimes, but it must be borne in mind that they are by far the most numerous section of the European community (62,978 in 1907), and that most of them belong to the lowest class of immigrants. The commercial superior- ity of the Greeks to the Orientals is nowhere so strikingly mani- fested as in Egypt, where it affords a modern reflex of their ancient success in colonization.
Phtrorenns. POLITICAL NOTES. Ixiii
The Italian residents, 34,926 in number, consist cliielly of tr.-id- ers of a humlilc class, but include also many mcrcliants, advocates, and scholars. Of I'rencli nationality (^14,591) arc all the artisans of the higher class, who are generally noted for their skill, trust- worthiness, and sobriety. Most of the better shops are kept by Frenchmen, and the chief European officials of the government, including several architects and engineers, were until recently French. The British settlers numbered 6118 in 1882 and in 1907 20,653, inclusive of the troops. Until recently their si)ecialties were the manufacture of machinery and the construction of railways and harbours; but of late they have also almost monopolized the chief posts in those branches of the administration (army, post and telegriipli office, railways, custom-liousel that have been remodelled after the British pattern. Apart from the troojis, a large majority of the residents wiio enjoy the protection of the British consTilate are Maltese and natives of India (in 19UT , 6292 from Britisli (lolonies). To the Maltese apply even more forcibly most of the remarks already made regarding the (i reeks. It has been ascertained that the Maltese settlers Iti foreign countries are more numerous than those resident in tlieir two small native islands, and of these a considerable proportion belongs to Egypt. At home, under the discipline of British institutions, they form a pattern little nation of their own, but in Egypt, where they are freed from the restraint of these influences, they are very apt to degenerate and to swell unduly the ranks of the criminal class. Many of the Maltese, how- ever, are enterprising tradesmen and industrious artisans, such as shoemakers and joiners. To the Austrian (7704) and German ( 1847 ) community belong a number of merchants of the best class, many physicians and teachers, inn-keepers, musicians, and lastly humble hainlicraftsmen. — In 1907 there wero 521 Americans in Egypt.
With regard to the capability of Europeans of becoming ac- climatized in Egypt there are a number of widely divergent opinions. Much, of course, must depend on the nature of the climate of their own respective countries. It has been asserted that European families settled in Egypt die out in the second or third generation, but of this there is no sufficient proof, as the European community is of very recent origin, and many examples to the contrary might be cited. Moreover as the Europeans in Egypt dwell exclusively in the large cities, they do not afford very conclusive evidence on the general question ; for city life, as opposed to country life, is even less propitious to liealth and vigour in warm countries than it is in northern climes. Thus the Mamelukes have left no descendants in Egypt. The climate of Egypt (comp, p. Ixxvii) is less enervating than that of most other hot countries, an advantage attributed to the dryness of the air.
Ixiv II. GEOGRAPHICAT. AND c. The Nile.
c. The Nile.
Bff Captain H. G. Lyons.
From tlicj sources of the Nyavaronyo, a tributary of the Kagera River, to the sea the Kagera-Nile is the second longest continuous waterway in the world (4037 M.), being surpassed only by the Mississippi-Missouri, wliich is probably about 100 M. longer. From the Ripon Falls at Lake Victoria to the sea the distance is 3473 M., so that the Nile proper is the longest single river in the world, tlie Yang-tse-kiang i>robably coming next.
Rising to the N.E. of Lake Tanganyika, the waters of the Nya- varongo-Kagera flow into the great Victoria Lake, on the N. shore of which, at the Ripon Falls, begins the true Nile. After a course of 242 M. this enters the Albert Lake. From this point, under the name of the Bahr el-Gehel, it traverses a rocky channel as far as Gondokoro, and it then flows for 470 M. through the swamps Avhich till the valley and provide the reeds and grasses of the 'sudd', or mass of vegetation wliich from time to time blocks the channel (p. 435). Jn latitude 9° 30' N. the main stream receives two tributaries, the Bahr el-GhaiCd and the Bahr ez-Zarafeh, and a little farther on it is joined by the important Sobat River, to which the annual flood of the White Nile is due. From this point to Khartum the Bahr el- Abyad or 'White Nile', as it is here called, flows through a shallow valley of considerable width, until it is joined by the Bahr el-Azrak, i.e. the 'blue', 'dark', or 'turbid' Nile, so called in contradistinc- tion to the White Nile, the 'clear' water of which has been filtered in its passage through the marshes of the Bahr el-Gebel or has de- posited its silt in the upper reaches of the Sobat. Between Khartum and the Mediterranean, a distance of 1900 M., the Nile receives no further addition to its supply except from the river Atbara, while it is being continually diminished by evaporation, by percolation into the sandstone of the desert through which it flows, and by the irri- gation of its flood-plains in Egypt. — Between Wadi Haifa and Assuan the average breadth of the Nile is about 550 yds., to the N. of Assuan it varies from 550 to 980 yds.
As practically no rain falls within its limits, Egypt would cease to exist as a fertile country and would become a desert valley, similar to those of the Sahara, were it not for its constant supply of water from the Nile. Thus the all-important annual Inundation of th at river merits special notice as the great event of the Egyptian year.
The heavy rains which fall from June to September on the Abys- sinian tableland cause the Blue Nile and the Atbara to rise rapidly, and their waters carry down in suspension vast quantities of the mud which has during many centuries formed the fertile valley and delta of Egypt, but of which very little is deposited now, however, owing to the perennial irrigation (comp. p. Ixxi). The volume of the Blue Nile flood, which may reach and even exceed 360,000 cubic
c. The Nile. POLITICAL NOTES. Ixv
feet per second, holds back the waters of the White Nile above the junction of the two streams, so that in August and September the waters of the Bahr el-Gebel and the Sobat are penned up in the White Nile valley and contribute only a very small share to the inundation of the Nile proper. The rains of Abyssinia may therefore be regarded as practically regulating tlie height of the inundation of the Nile, and it is their variations which occasion the fluctuation from year to year. The region of the equatorial lakes has no effect whatever on the flood.
The Nile begins to rise at Khartum about the middle of May, and at Assuan by the beginning of June, reaching its maximum height at both places about the end of the first week in September. The mean difference between the highest and lowest stages of the river is 21 ft. at Khartum, 20 ft. at Wadi Haifa, 23 ft. at Assuan, 22 ft. at Assiut, 22 ft. at Minyeh, and 16 ft. "at Cairo. After the flood has reached its maximum height the Blue Nile falls rapidly, but the water of the White Nile, which is now liberated, prevents too rapid a fall of the river below Khartiim. By January the Blue Nile sup- ply has diminished to a small amount, while that of the White Nile is several times as great, and this state of affairs continues until June, when the Blue Nile again rises. Thus, for these five months the mainstay of the Nile supply is the constant quantity furnished by the White Nile, amounting to some 14,000 cubic ft. per second, supplemented by a quantity from the Sobat River and the Blue Nile, which varies from year to year according to the amount of the summer and autumn rains of Abyssinia in the preceding year.
From time immemorial the Nile flooded its valley annually. Crops were sown on the mud flats left by the water as it subsided and, at a very early period, a system of irrigation was developed by which the flood-water, with its load of rich earth, was led by canals into basins enclosed by earthen banks, where it deposited its sedi- ment and whence it was allowed to escape when the river had fallen suffi(;iently. The crops which grew luxuriantly on the soil thus annually enriched were harvested in April and May, after which time land in the neighbourhood of the river or where there were wells could alone be cultivated until November after the next flood. The amount of water was insufficient to meet the needs of agri- culture in Egypt during the months of May, June, and July.
Of recent years, however, especially since Mohammed Ali deve- loped cotton-growing in the Delta, a great change has taken place. It is no longer in the fljood-season alone that water is supplied to the land. Several large works have been constructed in order to render Perennial Irriyation (comp. p. Ixxi) possible, by storing up the surplus water in November, December, and January for distri- bution in the later months before the arrival of the flood, and by means of canals and numerous regulating works water is supplied to the Delta at such a level as to flow on to the cultivated land at
BAiiDKK£B'a Egypt. Tth Edit. e
Ixvi U. GEOGRAPHICAL AND c. The Nile.
all seasous, thus allowing a series of crops to bo raised througbout the year. Moliammetl All deepened canals and began in 1835 the construction of the Delta Barrage (comp. p. 122), which was not completed, however, until 1890. It renders it possible to raise the upstream water-level so that the water can at all times flow into the three main delta-canals, the Rayah et-Taufiki, the Rayah el-Menn- fiyeh, and the RayAh el-Belieireh. In 1902 were conipletedjthe Assuan Dam (p. 371 ) and the Assiut Barrage (p. 232). The tlrst of these works (recently heightened) allows a reserve-supply of water to be kept to increase the insufticient supply of the river in May, June, and July, while the second enables the water-level of the river at Assiut to be raised until it flows down the great Ibrahimiyeh Canal whii-h supplies the provinces of Assiut, Minyeh, Benisueif, Gizeh, and (through the Bahr Yusuf) the Faiyuni. F"inally the bar- rage at Esneh (p. 342), completed in 1909, provides for the irri- gation of the provini'e of Keneh. One (dfect of the modifications thus introduced is to diminish to some extent the importance of the high floods, but to enhance enormously the value of a favourable low- stage supply, since in April, May, June, and July, when the supply of water is lowest, a very large proportion of the country from Assist to the sea is bearing crops, principally cotton , the most valuable crop of the year. Another effect of increased perennial irrigation is that the volume of water brought down by bountiful inundations is greater than is now required. Of late years, very large sAms liave been expended in providing an efficient system of drainage to prevent low-lying lands from becoming water-logged and the Rosetta branch is now being remodelled to increase its capacity as a flood-escape.
The breadth of the Nile valley is nowhere great, and only a por- tion of it is occupied by the cultivated alluvial plain, the rest con- sisting of desert-sands at too high a level to be reached by the Inundation. In Nubia the cultivable land is restricted to isolated patches, while the valley is rarely as much as 2-3 M. wide; in Egypt it is wider, varyiug from 15 M. at Benisueif to 5 M. at Edfu, of which 13 M. and 4 M. respectively are cultivated.
The alluvial deposit which is annually brought down by the Nile in flood has accumulated in the course of centuries to an average depth of 35-40 ft., occasionally even more. In composition it varies slightly from place to place. As a rule it forms a good light soil being rather above the average in potash but deficient in nitrates The view formerly held that it had a high manurial value was an exaggerated one, and it should be considered rather as a virgin soil which, added annually to the surface of the land, enables it to bear luxuriant crops year after year.
Every year during the Hood a considerable deposit of silt takes place in the river-bed, part of which is carried away as the river falls, but the general result is that the bed of the Nile has been
<j. The Nile. f OLITICAL NOTES. Ixvii
slowly rising by deposit ai an av(Mai;e rate of about 4 inches prr century for at least 5000 years and for a long period before this at some undeterminable rate. One consequence of this is that temples, which -wore built on the banks of the river, well above the annual inundation, are now below it, and foundations which were originally dry are now below the indltration-levol and in i'Oi\sequence have deteriorated.
This remarkable river has exercised a unique influence on the history of civilization. The necessity of controlling its course and utilizing its water taught the ancient Egyptians the art of river engineering and the kindred science of land-surveying, while in the starry heavens they beheld the eternal calendar which regulated the approach and the departure of the inundation, so that the river may perhaps have given the first impulse to the study of astronomy. As the annual overflow of the water obliterated all landmarks, it was necessary annually to measure the land anew, and to keep a register of the area belonging to each proprietor; and above all it became an important duty of the rulers of the people to impress them with a strong sense of the sacredness of property. Similar causes produced a like result in Babylonia, Every succeeding year, however, there arose new disputes, and these showed the necessity of establishing settled laws and enforcing judicial decisions. The Nile thus led to the foundation of social, legal, and political order.
Subsequently, when the engineers and architects, in the service of the state or in the cause of religion, erected those colossal struc- tures with which we are about to become acquainted, it was the Nile which materially facilitated the transport of their materials, and enabled the builders of the pyramids and the other ancient Egyptians to employ the granite of Assuan for the structures of Memphis, and even for those of Tanis, near the coast of the Medi- terranean. As the river, moreover, not only afforded a convenient route for the transport of these building-materials, but also an ad- mirable commercial highway, we find that the Egyptians had acquired considerable skill at a very early period in constructing vessels with oars, masts, sails, and even cabins and other appliances.
From the earliest historical period down to the present time the course of the Nile, from the cataracts down to its bifurcation to the N. of Cairo, has undergone very little change. This, however, is not the case with its Embouchures; for, while ancient writers mention seven (the Pelusiac, the Tanitic, theMendesian, the Bucolic or Phatnitic, the Scbennytic, the Bolbitinic, and the Canopic), there are now practically t\M) channels only through which the river is discharged into the se.i. These are the mouths at llosetta (Rashid) and Daiuietta(Dumyat), situated near the middle of the Delta, while the Pelusiac and Canopic mouths, the most important in ancient times, lay at the extreme E. and W. ends of the coast respectively.
Ixviii 11. GEOGRAPHICAL AND d. Otology.
d. Geology of Egypt.
1. The Nile Vallky and the I.sthmus of Suez. The building stone generally used at Alexandria is obtained from the quarries of Meks (p. 26) and on the coast to the E. of Alexandria. This is a calcareous light-coloured stone of the quaternary period, formed of fragments of shells and foraminifera, intermixed with oolitic granules and grains of quartz sand, or even with fine gravel. This rock forms low hills to the W. of Alexandria and the coast-strip from Alexan- dria to Abukir. In many places it is covered by sand-dunes and other recent formations.
The cultivated plains of the Delta and the A'j7e Valley consist of recent alluvial deposits, ranging from fine sand to the finest silt, laid down by the water of the annual inundation. Under these lie coarser yellowish sands and gravels of pleistocene age, which here and there reach the surface in the Delta as islands of sandy waste among the rich cultivation of the surrounding country. These are re- lated to the later sand and gravel deposits on the neighbouring deserts, and to the traces of marine cliffs and beaches of the same period which may be seen on both sides of the valley at Cairo and at other places. At Abu Za'bal (p. 120), to the N.E. of Nawa, occurs a low hill of basalt which supplies excellent road-metal for Cairo and Alexandria.
The N. portion of tlie Isthmus of Suez consi.sts of the recent marine deposits of the Mediterranean, while in the central portion, near the low hill of El-Gisr and round Lake Timsah, are deposits of the Nile mud with fresh-water shells. To the S. of the Bitter Lakes are found marine quaternary deposits of the Red Sea.
Reefs of fossil coral of quaternary age occur over a large part of the coasts of the Gulf of Suez, and the highest of these are now 1000 ft. above the present sea-level, while five or six others occur at lower levels. The land here, or at least the coast line, must there- fore have risen considerably in comparatively recent times, and the salines which are now forming appear to show that the movement has not yet ceased. The shores and islands of the Red Sea are to- day fringed with coral reefs which are most dangerous to shipping.
Sands and loams occur to the S. of the pyramids of Gizeh, and at numerous places on the E. side of the Nile valley between Cairo andFeshn, belonging, as is shown by the numerous fossils which they contain, to the pliocene age. The small valley immediately to the S. of the pyramids of Zawiyet el-'Aryan has been cut out in these beds, and a rich collection of pliocene fossils may be made here. These deposits are intimately connected with the formation of the present valley in pliocene times, when it was at first a fiord into which the waters of the Mediterranean flowed at least as far as Keneh and perhaps even as far as Esneh. In the time of the older miocene sea the Nile valley did not exist, but instead a large river flowed from a S.W. direction towards the region that is now Lower Egypt.
d. Geology. POLITICAL NOTES. Ixix
The fluvio-marine deposits of Moghara (to the W. of the Wadl Natrun) and the silicifled wood of the same district also belong to these mioceiie times, as do also the marine limestones of the plateau of Cyrenaica, to the N. of the Siweh Oasis and on the E. edge of the Arabian Desert (at the foot of Gebel Geneifeh and Gebel 'Atika), and on the shore of the Gulf of Suez near Gebel Zeit.
The 'Petrified Forest" near Cairo consists of scattered fragments of the silicifled stems of trees; and these, together with the red sandstone of Gebel el-Ahmar and conical hills of the same material in the N. parts of the Arabian and Libyan deserts, are connected ■with the siliceous thermal springs which bubbled forth amid the network of lagoons which existed in these parts in oligocene times. To the N.W. of theBirket Kariin, in the Faiyiim, these fossil trees are even more numerous, while in the sands of oligocene age innumer- able bones of former terrestrial and marine mammals and reptiles have been found, which were carried down by the river and buried iu its estuarine deposits. A flne collection of these fossil animals may be seen in the Geological Museum at Cairo.
The cliffs of the Nile valley above Cairo consist of middle and lower eocene limestone, containing numerous nummulites (p. 116) and other fossils. The strata are gently inclined to the N.N.W., so that the strata increase in age as we go towards the S.
To the S. of Edfu begins thv upper cretaceous formation, here re- presented by the sandstone which at Gebel Silsileh forms steep walls of rock and confines the river in a narrow channel. This 'Nubian Sandstone covers an area of many thousand square miles, extending from the oases to the Sudan. At certain points, such as Assuan, Kalabsheh, Wadi Haifa, and the third and fourth cataracts, ridges of crystalline rocks (granite, gneiss, diorite, etc.) rise through it, and form black or reddish hills in sharp contrast to the low tabular masses of the sandstone.
2. In the Arabian or Eastern Desert (pp. 362, 372 et seq.) a line of hills, some peaks of which are 7000 ft. in height, runs parallel to the licd Sea and at short distance from it. This is wholly formed of crystalline rocks (granite, gneiss, diorite, hornblende-si-hist, mica- srhist, talc-schist and tlie andesites and allied rocks which form a great series of very ancient volcanic rocks, the imperial porphyry of Gebel Dukhan being a well-known representative). The E. and W. slopes of this range are overlaid by sedimentary rocks, usually the Nubian sandstone, but also (in the N. part) by limestones and marls. These stretch away toward the W., forming a great plateau of lime- stone in the N. and of sandstone in the S., in which the Nile Valley forms a narrow trough. Numerous deeply eroded valleys give a char- acteristic appearance to the Eastern Desert. The open plains are almost bare of vegitation, but numerous plants may be seen in the valleys, especially after rain, while in the sheltered ravines among tjje hills where springs occur they grow luxuriantly.
Ixx II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND e. Agriculture:
3. The Westekn or Libyan Desert (pp. 378 et seq.) is totally different. The level limestone plateau, about 1000 ft. above the sea, extends to the W., its S. escarpment overlooking the lower plain of the Nubian sandstone to the S. In deep bays in this escarpment lie the oases of Khdrgeh, Ddkhleh, and Fardfra, while that of Bahriyeh is situated in a depression surrounded by the higher plateau. The pla- teau is waterless and practically devoid of vegetation, while isolated knolls show how rapidly the erosion of the desert-surface by wind is proceeding. In certain parts lines of sand-dunes 100-200 ft. high stretch across the desert plateau in a N.N.W. and S.S.K. direction, sometimes for several hundred miles with hardly a break. They are most developed to the W. of the oasis of Dakhleh. The floor of the oases of Khargeh and Dakhleh consists mostly of dark-coloured sands and clays of the upper cretaceous formation. Some beds contain alum and others are phosphatic. Springs well up at many points from a depth of about 400 ft. and furnish an abundant water-supply to the cultivated lands (comp. p. Ixxii). Some of these rise through natural lissures and others through holes bored for the purpose.
To the S. of the oases lies the lower plain of the Nubian sand- stone. This plain contains no hills of any importance, but pre- sents a low rolling surface covered with blackened flint pebbles and concretions of iron and manganese oxide, while the silicified trunks of fossil trees are frequently met with. Yellow drift-sand is seen everywhere, but it is only occasionally that it forms dunes of any size.
The oasis of Farafra lies faither to the W., and to the N. and W. of it extends the plateau of eocene limestone as far as the oasis of Stweh. The strata here are mostly of miocene age, and they contain numerous fossils, a fact recorded by Herodotus and Eratosthenes.
e. Agricnlture and Vegetation.
1. Capabilities of the Soil. The land is extremely fertile, but it is not so incapable of exhaustion as it is sometimes represented to be. Many of the crops, as elsewhere, must occasionally be followed by a fallow period ; others thrive only when a certain rotation is ob- served (such as wheat, followed by clover and beans) ; and some fields require to be artificially manured. Occasionally two crops are yielded by the same field in the same season (wheat and saffron, wheat and clover, etc.). The great extension within the last thirty or forty years of the cultivation of the sugar-cane, which requires a great deal of moisture, and of the cotton-plant, which requires much less, has necessitated considerable modifications in the modes of irrigation and cultivation hitherto in use. As both of these crops are of a very exhausting character, the land must either be more frequently left fallow or must be artificially manured. The in- dustry and powers of endurance of the Egyptian peasantry are thus
Irrigation. POLITICAI. NOTES. Ixxi
most severely tried, although the homogeneous soil of the valley of the Nile requires less careful tilling and ploughing than ours. As the dung of the domestic animals is used as fuel throughout Egypt, where wood is very scarce, while that of the numerous pigeons (comp. p. 235) is mainly used for horticultural purposes, resource must be had to other manures. One of these is afforded by the ruins of an- cient towns, which were once built of unbaked clay, but now con- sist of mounds of earth, recognizable only as masses of ruins by the fragments of pottery they contain. Out of these mounds, which conceal the rubbish of thousands of years, is dug a kind of earth, known as Sabakh, sometimes containing as much as 12 per cent of nitrate of soda, potash, and cliloride of soda. The valuable nitrates, however, usually form a very small proportion. So largely have these ancient sites been worked of late years, since intensive cul- tivation began, that they will be exhausted at no very distant date. So long as the inundation deposited a thick deposit of fresh mud on the basin-lands every year, and a single crop was raised off the greater part of the area, the land could go on producing crops inde- finitely, but now that most of the land Is irrigated throughout the year a very small amount of the mud is deposited, while two or more crops are raised annually. To meet this, manuring in a much more systematic manner than hitherto has now become necessary, but as yet few cultivators have fully realized this.
2. Irrigation. As a consequence of the works described on y. lx.vi, the whole of Egypt from Assiut to the Mediterranean, with tiie exception of a strip of land along the edge of the Western Desert and the right bank of the Nile above Cairo, has had its old system of flood-irrigation, i.e. a single watering by the annual inundation, replaced by a ])erennial supply furnished by innumerable canals and watercourses. In the inundation season (p. Ixiv) the sluice-gates of the dams are open and the red-brown flood rushes through them towards the plains of l\gypt. When the irrigation-basins are flUed up to a sufficient level, the water is left in them for about 40 days, to deposit its suspended mud and to soak the ground thoroughly. The perennially irrigated lands of the provinces of Middle Egypt ;in(l the Delta receive only so much water as the standing crops ru([uire, since these districts cannot be inundated. They, therefore, under the present intensive cultivation receive a very much smaller amount of mud from the flood-water than the land v/hich has basin- irrigation, and this has to be compensated by extensive manuring.
Briefly stated, the annual routine after the end of the inundation is as follows. In November, when the Nile is falling and the whole country is amply supplied, the sluice-gates of the Assuan Dam are gradually closed, so as to fill the reservoir slowly. This is usually accomplished about the end of January. The gates of the Esneh, Assiut, and Delta barrages are similarly manipulated so as to main- tain the ne(;essary depth of water \n the supply-canals. In April the
Ixxil II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND e. Agriculture:
supply falls below the requirements of the country, and, besides drawing upon the supply of the reservoir, it then often becomes necessary to restrict land-owners on different parts of a canal to drawing water from it in rotation. Periods of watering alternate with periods when the water is employed elsewhere. The intervals become longer as the river falls, and the supply steadily diminishes until the flood rises about the beginning of August.
Above Assiiit flood irrigation still continues. About Aug. 20th the river has risen high enough to flow into the supply canals and basins; in these, when full, the water stands for 40 days. At the end of this period the clear water is allowed to flow back into the river, or, in the case of years when the flood is exceptionally low, into other basins at a lower level. On the mud thus left the seed is sown and a crop is grown without further watering. In years of in- sufficient flood the higher portions of the land are not watered; these lands are termed 'sharaki' and pay no tax when unwatered.
The irrigation is effected by means of: (1) The ^Sdkiyeh\ or large wheels (rarely exceeding 30 I't. in diameter), turned by cattle or buffaloes, and sometimes by camels, and fitted with scoops or buckets (kddCis) of wood or clay, resembling a dredging-machine. (2) The ^Shuduf\ an apparatus resembling an ordinary 'well-sweep' (with bucket and counter-weight), set in motion by one person only, and drawing the water in buckets resembling baskets in appear- ance; as a substitute for the sakiyeh several shadufs are some- times arranged one above the other. (3) When it is possible to store the water in reservoirs above the level of the land to be watered, it is allowed to overflow the fields whenever required. This is the only method available in the oases, where fortunately the springs rise with such force as to admit of their being easily dammed up at a sufficiently high level. (4) Pumps driven by steam are used also, particularly when a large supply of water is required, as in the case of the sugar-plantations on the banks (gefs) of the Nile in the N. part of Upper Egypt, where they are seen in great numbers. (5) The Taftut', a peculiar, very light, and easily moved wooden wheel, which raises the water by means of numerous compartments in the hollow felloes, is used mainly in the Lower Delta in places where the level of the water in the canals remains nearly the same. — Archimedean screws also are found in the Delta, and in the Faiyum there are undershot water-wheels. Occasionally irrigation is efl'ected by means of a basket (nattdl) slung on a rope between two labourers. In order to distribute tlie water equally over fiat fields, these are sometimes divided into a number of small squares by means of embankments of earth, a few inches in height, which, owing to the great plasticity of the Nile mud, are easily opened or closed so as to regulate the height of the water within them. The efforts of govern- ment as mentioned on p. Ixvi are directed towards the emanci- pation of agriculture from dependence upon the inundation.
Seasons. POLITICAL NOTES. liiiii
3. AoRicuLTUEAii Sbasons. Ill the time of the Pharaohs the Egyptian agricultural year, which originally began on July 19th, ■was divided into three equal parts, each consisting of four months of 30 days: the period of the inundation, winter, and summer. At the present day there are, strictly speaking, but two seasons: the hot season lasting from May to September and a cooler one from November to March , while October and April are intermediate months; but the effect which the annual Nile flood has upon the agriculture of the country rather than upon the ilimate has caused the period from July to October to bu considered as a third season.
(a) The Winter Cultivation, or ^Esh-Shittvi\ lasts on the flooded lands of Upper Egypt from November till April; on perennially irrigated land the winter- sowing takes place from October onwards, while tlie grain-harvest is reaped in April in Middle Egypt and in May in the Delta. In this season the principal crops are wheat, barley, beans, and barsim (clover).
(I)) The Summer Crops (Es-Seifi) may be considered as growing from May to August in the basin -lands and to October wherever tliere is perennial irrigation. The principal crops are rice, which is sown in May and harvested in October, and cotton, sown in March and picked in September and October. Most of the latter is grown from seed, but a limited amount is grown from two-year-old plants which have been cutback. On basin-lands of Upper Egypt where sufficient water from wells is available a crop of durra (millet) is grown and harvested before the flood-water arrives.
(c) The Autumn Season ('En- Mi', or flood) is the shortest, lasting barely seventy days. On the rich land of the Delta maize is grown. A large crop of durra is raised on the perennially irrigated lands of Upper Egypt, and a considerable amount also grown on those which are not reached by the inundation. This crop is cut about November.
The Agricultuk.\i, Implements of tbe Egyptians are exceedingly primitive and defective. The chief of these is the plough (mihrdi), the form of which is precisely the same as it was 5000 years ago; and the traveller will recognize it on many of the monuments and in the system of hieroglyphics. It consists of a pole about 6ft. long, drawn by an ox, buffalo, or other draucht-animal, attached to it by means of a yoke, while to the other end is f;i>tened a piece of wood bent inwards at an acute angle and shod with a three-pronged piece of iron (lisdn). Con- nected with the pole is the handle which is held by the fellah. These rude and light ploughs penetrate .but slightly into the ground. The harrow is replaced in Kgypt by a roller provided with iron spikes (kum- /ud , literally 'hedgehog'). The only tool used by the natives on their fields, or in making embankments of earth, is a kind of hoe or shovel (migrafeh, fas, toriyeh). The process of reaping consists in cutting the grain with a sickle (mingal), or simply uprooting it by hand. The ndraff, or 'threshing-sledge", consists of a kind of sledge resting on a roller provided with sharp semicircular pieces of iron, and drawn by oxen or buffaloes. This primitive machine, being driven over the wheat, peas, or lentils to be threshed, crashes the stalks and ears and set.? free th« grain or seeds.
lxx.iv U. GEOGRAPHICAL AND c. Ayriculture :
4. Farm Pkoduce op Egti't. The following is an enumeration of all the most important industrial crops cultivated in Egypt. On hearing the names of those with which he is unacquainted, the traveller may identify them with the aid of the Arabic names given below. The various pro- ducts are enumerated in the order of their importance.
a. Cereals. 1. Wheat (kamh). 2. Slaize (dura shdmi, i.e. Syrian; called in Syria dura only). 3. Barley (shi'ir). 4. Rice (ruzz), cultivated only in the lower part of the Delta of Alexandria and Rahmaniyeh, as fa,r as Mansura, Zakazik, Sillihiyeh, and the Wadi Tumilat, and also in the Faiyum and in the oases of the Libyan desert. 5. Sorghum vulgare (dura beledi, i.e. durra of the country; simply called dura in the Sudan; Ital. sort/ho, Engl. Ka.ffir-corn, and the Tyrolese sirch). G. Pennisetuni typhoideum (dukhn).
b. LEGDMiNons Plants. 1. Broad beans (f&l). 2. Lentils {'ads). 3. Chick-peas (/(r^mmw^;. 4. Lupins (^to'jnisj. b.Vea.s{bisilla). 6. Vigna Sinensis (mbiya). 7. Dolichos Lablab (lablab), which is very frequently seen fes- tooning walls and hedges, but is grown also in fields (lilbiya afin).
c. Green Crops. 1. White Egyptian clover (barsim). 2. Foenum Grsecum (helbeh), frequently ground into flour and used in making bread ; also generally eaten raw by the natives in spring ; not to be confounded with clover. .3. Medicago sativa, or lucerne (barsim hegdzi). 4. Lathyrus .sativus, or flat pea (gilbdn). 5. Sorghum halepense (gerau).
d. Stimulants. Poppies, for the manufacture of opium (afiUn). — The growth and importation of Indian hemp (hashish; see p xxvi) and the cultivation of tobacco (dukhkhdii) are forbidden, the latter measure being in the interest of the customs-revenues.
e. Textile Materials. 1. Cotton (kutn) , introduced from India in 1821, but extensively cultivated since 1863 only. 2. Flax (killdn). 3. Hibis- cus cannabinus (til). 4. Sisal hemp, or Agave rigida.
f. Dyes. 1. Indigo argentea, a peculiar kind (iiileh). 2. Lawsonia inermis (henna)., used for dyeing the nails, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet yellowish red fa very ancient custom) ; properly a tree, but, like the tea-plant, cultivated in fields in the form of a dwarfed bush. 3. Saffron (karlam or 'osfur). 4. Reseda Luteola (bliya), used as a yellow dye.
g. Oil Plants. 1. Castor-oil plant (kharwa'). 2. Sesame (simsim).
3. 'Ra'P^ (selgam). 4. Mustard (khardal, or kabar). 5. Arachides, or earth- nuts (fUl senndri, or simply fUl). 6. Saffron (as an oil-yielding plant). 7. Poppy (as an oil-plant).
h. Spices. 1. Capsicum annuum, the Italian peperone (Jil.fil ahmar). 2. Capsicum frutescens, or Cayenne pepper (shatla). 3. Aniseed (yansUn). i. CoTianier (kusbareh). 0. Cummin (kammHn). ^i'.'WigeWa, (kammUii aswad). 7. Dill (shabat). 8. Mustard. 9. Fennel (shamar).
i. The Sugau Cane (kasab) is largely cultivated in the N. part of Upper Egypt (comp. p. Ixxii). An inferior variety, which is eaten raw, introduced from India in the time of the caliphs, is cultivated in every part of the country.
k. Vegetables. 1. Bamyas, or Hibiscus esculentus (bdmiya). 2. On- ions (basal).! one of the chief exports of Egypt. 3. Pumpkins (kar'a).
4. Cucumbers (khiijdr). 5. Egyptian cucumbers (frequently trumpet-shaped and ribbed; different varieties csWa^'abdeldwi., 'aggUr^ etc.). 6. Melons (kdw&n ; musk-melons, shammdm). 7. Water-melons (battikh). 8. Aubergines (hddingdn). 9. Tomatoes (iamdlim). 10. Corchorus oli'torius (meWkhiyeh). ii. Col(:ica,aia,(kulkds). i2. GutUc (tdm). 13. Mallows ('i7(«66e»zeA). 14. Cab- bage (korumb). 15. Celery (karafs). 16. Radishes, a peculiar kind, with fleshy leaves, which form a favourite article of food (figl). 17. Lettuces (khass). 18. Sorrel (kommeid). 19. Spinach (i.ibdnikh). 20. Parsley (bak- d&nis). 21. Purslane ((•«5''«ft). 22. Turnips (/?/0. 23. Carrots (j'e^ej', a peculiar kind, with red juice). 24. Beetroot (bangar). 26. Cress (Eruca sativa; gargir). A variety of other vegetables are cultivated in small quantities
n gardens, exclusively for the use of European residents.
Trees. POLITICAL NOTES. Ixxv
5. Tkkks and Plantations. The extensive planting of trees since the middle of the 19th cent, has introduced a new feature into the Egyptian landscape. In ancient times most of the timber re- quired for sliip-huilding and other purposes seems to have been imported from abroad. Mohammed Ali, a great patron of horti- culture, at one time offered prizes for the planting of trees, but his efforts Avere unattended with success, as the climatic and other diffi- culties attending the task were then but imperfectly understood in Egypt. Ibrahim followed the example of his predecessor, but 'Abbas I. and Sa'id were sworn enemies to trees of every kind, and they were content that their palaces should be exposed to the full glare of the sun. A new epoch, however, began when the Khedive Isma'il sum- moned to Egypt M. Barillet ( 18691, superintendent of the gardens of Paris, one of the most skilful landscape-gardeners of the day. The finest of the shade-trees, both on account of its umbrageousness and the excellence of its wood, and one which thrives admirably, is the lebbakh (Albizzia Lebbek\ which has long been erroneously called by travellers the acacia of the Nile (the latter being properly the sunt tree). Within forty years the lebbakh attains a height of 80 ft. and a great thickness, while the branches project to a long distance over the roads, covering them with a dense leafy canopy within a remarkably short time. Among the most important of the other kinds of trees thus planted are the magnificent 'Flamboyer des Indes' (Poinciana pulcherrima), the rapidly-growing Jacaranda, Casuarina, and Eucalyptus, tropical fig-trees, and several rare varieties of palms.
The lommonest Tkees of an Earlier Period which the trav- eller will encounter in every town in Egypt are the following : — The Acacia Nilotica (sunt), the thorn-tree of antiquity, the pods (karad) of ^Yhich, resembling the beads of a rosary, yield an excel- lent material for tanning purposes. Next to the palm, this is the tree most frequently seen by the wayside and in the villages. Then, the Acacia Farnesiana (fufnch), with blossoms of delicious perfume ; the sycamore (gemmeiz)., anciently considered sacred ; the zizyphus, or Christ's thorn -tree (neb/c); tamarisks (atl); the Parkinsonia (seiseban); mulberry -trees (tut); and carob- trees, or bread of St. John (kharrxLb).
Among the Fruit Trees the most important is the date-palm (Phoenix dactyliftra, naktda; the date, halah; the ribs of the leaf, yerid ; the points ('f the leaf, sanf; the terminal bud, gummdr; the bast, t7f). In 1907 there were 5,966,010 date-palms in Egypt. The date-palms blossom in March and April, and the fruit ripens in August and September. Fre;h dates are rough in appearance, blood-reil or pale yellow in colour, and harsh and astringent in taste. Like the medlar they become more palatable after fermen- tation has set in. There are no fewer than twenty-seven kinds of date commonly offered for sale. The large.'^t attain a length of three
Ixxi^i II. GEOGRAPHICAL AND e. Agriculture.
inches, and are called ibrtmi, or sukkoti, as they come from N. Nubia. The most delicately flavoured are the dark-brown dates from Alexan- dria, known as amhdt, which are eaten fresh. The value of the dates exported annually amounts to about one million francs only, as they realize too high a price in the country itself to remunerate the exporter. — The dum-palm (Hyphaena Thebaica) occurs prin- cipally in Upper Egypt and Nubia. It may be seen on the Nile above Baliana (comp. p. 244). It is a broad-leafed palm of medium height, and its timber and bast are of considerable value. Various objects are made out of the hard kernel of the fruit, whilethe soft and fibrous rind is edible and has a sweetish taste, not unlike that of ginger- bread. — The mango-tree (Mangifera Indica) has recently been in- troduced into the Delta for the sake of its fruit.
The vine thrives admirably in Egypt, and grapes ('inah) abound from July to September. Wine was extensively made from them in ancient times, and this might still easily be done, were it not that Egypt is already amply supplied with cheap and excellent wines from every part of the Mediterranean. The vine blossoms in March and April, like the palm, and the grapes ripen in June and July. Oranges (burtukdn) are abundant and cheap (the harvest be- ginning in September), and so also are mandarins ('■Yusuf Effendi ) and small lemons {lamun; the small and juii^y fruit of the Citrus limonium) ; citrons and cedros are of less frequent occurrence. Among other fruit-trees we may mention also the pomegranate (rummdn), which yields a handsome return. The common European fruits likewise abound, but their flavour is generally very inferior. Figs (tin) are very common in summer, but caprification is not practised in Egypt.
The principal Decorative Plants are roses (ward; of which the Rosa Damascena moschata and Rosa sempervirens are specially cultivated for the manufacture of attar of roses), oleanders of aston- ishing height, carnations, and geraniums, all of which have been grown in Egypt from a very early period. A bushy tree, which in its half-leafless condition attra<"ts the attention of every traveller on landing at Alexandria in winter , is the Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima). The insignificant blossom is surrounded by leaves of the most brilliant red, presenting a very picturesque and strik- ing appearance. Natural forests, or even solitary wild trees, are never met with in the valley of the Nile or in the valleys of the nor- thern deserts.
f. Climate of Egypt.
By Captain H. O. Lyom.
The blue cloudless sky, the powerful sunlight, and the dry
vrarm air are among the first facts that strike the traveller on his
arrival in Egypt; and his surprise increases when he observes that
f. Climate.
POLITICAL NOTES.
Ixxvil
the conditions remain uniform day after day, and are, in short, so generally the rule that 'the weather ceases to be a topic of conver- sation. If from the top of the hills or cliffs bordering the Nile valley to the S. of Cairo he looks out on the boundless deserts on either side, the visitor will realize at once that Egypt is practically a part of the Sahara, a verdant strip of fertile soil, 8-12 M. wide, depend- ent for its existence upon the Nile; and that the refreshing purity of the atmosphere is essentially due to the proximity of the desert.
Strictly speaking there are but two seasons (comp. p. Ixxiiij. During the summer-months (May-Sept.) there prevails throughout the whole of Egypt dry and hot weather, tempered by steady northerly \vinds, but in the other half of the year, and especially in December, January, and February, the storms of the Mediterranean exercise so much effect on the Delta that comparatively cold weather, witli cloudy days, is sometimes experienced as far as Cairo and even up to Benisueif. The temperature is sometimes high even in winter,